The Search for Peace Unit 8 Flashcards

The United States experienced many changes in the latter half of the nineteenth century, such as:
a civil war;
millions of freed slaves;
industrial revolution;
millions of new immigrants;
changes in education;
women's suffrage movements;
Indian wars;
burgeoning city populations; and
technological advances.
During the Progressive Era, there were four primary kinds of reform movements:
political ones, dealing with more efficient government;
economic ones, dealing with trusts, monopolies, and working conditions;
social ones, dealing with suffrage, equality, and education;
moral ones, keying on purity and religion.
The goals of reform movements included:
improving the welfare of individual people;
changing big business, with the individual worker in mind;
improving the moral fiber of society; and
voting for change in government.
Some of the long-lasting reforms in government include:
the popular election of U.S. senators;
direct primaries;
the adoption of recalls and referendums; and
the creation of the Federal Reserve System and the income tax.
The Progressive Era did have a downside in that there was increased government control on the lives of American citizens.
The rapid growth of large cities brought the need for reform.
The Progressive Era saw changes in how the Federal government operated. Four of these shifts in policy included:
intervention in strikes affecting public welfare;
the use of arbitration to settle disputes;
putting an end to trusts and monopolies; and
protecting and preserving millions of acres of land to create parks and reserves.
The states underwent their own changes as the need for reform appeared in different arenas. States contributed to reform in two primary ways.
They made changes in labor practices, including:
limiting the workday for children and women to ten hours (this was eventually reduced to an eight-hour workday);
companies providing workers' compensation after injuries were sustained on the job;
the eventual banning of child labor altogether, coupled with compulsory education laws;
a minimum wage;
work safety regulations; and
laws prohibiting children from working at night.
There were also major changes to the election process, including:
referendums where voters could repeal laws;
initiatives that allowed voters to propose laws directly rather than wait for state legislatures to do it;
recalls that gave voters the power to remove government officials if they were unpopular or corrupt; and
direct primaries that gave voters the power to decide who ran in general elections.
The Industrial Revolution and an influx of new immigrants caused the population of cities to swell. This resulted in poor sanitation and health problems. Jane Addams and many others set about educating, teaching, and meeting the needs of many poor people.
Four new amendments were added to the Constitution during the Progressive Era.
The Sixteenth Amendment dealt with the economic issue of taxation;
The Seventeenth Amendment covered the political issue of how U.S. senators would be elected rather than chosen by state legislatures;
The Eighteenth Amendment handled the moral issue of alcohol by banning the sale and distribution of liquor; and
The Nineteenth Amendment dealt with the issue of women's suffrage
Roosevelt and the federal government- The use of arbitration to settle labor disputes, and intervention in strikes effecting public welfare.
During the progressive era, labor reform and format for elections were accomplished by the states.
One opposing view at the Paris peace conference was a peace with vengeance.
reparations were funds to restore war damage.
The Fourteen Points encouraged the Allied soldiers by giving them goals for which to fight.
Allied countries represented at the Paris peace talks included U.S., England, France, Italy and Japan.
Allied heads of government at the peace talks included Lloyd, Wilson, Orlando and Clemenceau.
The League of Nations was established to regulate international relations.
Alsace-Lorraine- disputed French-German territory
Orlando- Italian premier
Clemenceau- French premier
Lloyd George- British prime minister
Treaty of Versailles- organization to secure world peace
League of Nations- peace ending World War I
foreclosure The act of taking away a mortgage.
internationalism The thinking that a nation should be actively involved in world affairs.
speculative Given to theorizing or taking a chance.
Flash Cards
Spelling Bee
PROGRESS BEFORE THE DEPRESSION
Outwardly, the economy of the United States in the 1920s never seemed better. Production rates were increasing, and the public enjoyed a prosperous life. However, strong underlying defects indicated an unhealthy economic condition. The leadership of the United States throughout these productive but shattering years was entrusted to Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover.
The Coolidge Years. Like Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge did not provide the country with strong executive leadership. The power and prestige of the presidency, which had grown so strong under Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, was reduced when Coolidge took office following Harding's death.
Coolidge was born in 1872 in Vermont. He came from a hard-working family. After graduating from Amherst College and law school, he entered private law practice. He became lieutenant governor and later governor of Massachusetts. Coolidge was not very outgoing—he was very careful in his relationships with people in both private and public life. He talked so little that he became known as "Silent Cal."
Calvin Coolidge
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to listen to an excerpt from President Coolidge's inaugural address on March 4, 1925, in Washington, D.C.
President Coolidge was a hard-working, moral, frugal, and dedicated president. As a political conservative, he was in agreement with Harding's philosophy regarding normalcy. Although not totally insensitive to rural areas, he strongly believed that what was best for industry was best for the United States.
The scandals of Harding's administration were soon improved by Coolidge's stern stand for morality. Coolidge backed immigration restrictions, tax reduction, and bonuses for World War I veterans. Coolidge's administrative policies were following the desires of the majority of the people in the United States.
Unlike most politicians, Coolidge did not personally campaign for election in 1924. Charles G. Dawes, the Republican vice presidential nominee, handled this assignment quite well. With the campaign slogan of "Keep Cool with Coolidge," the Republicans scored an overwhelming victory.
The election result reinforced Coolidge's plan to continue the policies of Harding. Coolidge soon had to deal with the question of farm relief. Although many farmers were Republicans, Midwestern farmers pushed legislation known as the McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Bill, challenging the president and the Federal government to raise farm prices. Coolidge vetoed that bill twice during his term in office. Many farmers were alienated when the president insisted that they solve their own problems.
Coolidge fared more favorably on his stand for tax reduction with the help of his secretary of the treasury, Andrew W. Mellon. Secretary Mellon's contention was that a lowered tax structure "increases the amount of capital which is put into production enterprises, stimulates business, and makes more certain that more $5,000 jobs will be available to go around." The unemployment rate was also directly related to the tax structure. This relationship is quite impressive in the light of a national budget surplus throughout the 1920s.
Much of the budget surplus was accumulated by limiting new government programs and cutting others. From 1923 to 1929, the national debt was cut to $16 billion after being $24 billion in 1920. President Coolidge explained this phenomenon in a speech to Congress in 1928:
"Four times we have made a drastic revision of our internal revenue system, abolishing many taxes and substantially reducing almost all others. Each time the resulting stimulation to business has so increased taxable incomes and profits that a surplus has been produced."
Although this statement may have been slightly inflated in praising the benefits of his tax laws, Coolidge did have reason to justify his policy—the nation was having a business boom.
By the mid-1920s, internationalism and isolationism were of great concern to the people of the United States. Proponents of internationalism believed that the interests of the United States were universal. The internationalists insisted that the United States should be concerned about any place on earth where people were persecuted or endangered. Isolationism theorists, on the other hand, resisted the political or military involvement of the United States outside of the Western Hemisphere. The internationalists wanted the United States to play an important role in world affairs, but the isolationists strongly resented any such participation.
Americans tended to be more flexible in the practical area of world commerce than the theories of either isolationism or internationalism allowed. The position taken by the country was that involvement did not constitute commitment. This position worked well as the nation strove to maintain peace. Supporters of both sides subscribed to the slogan of "America first." This unity was a healthy sign for a country with varying beliefs.
In an effort to help Europe with its financial troubles, the United States cooperated in forming the Young Plan, named after American businessman Owen D. Young. The Young Plan reduced German reparations from $33 billion to $9 billion giving hope that this reduction would help Germany to pay its international war debts. The United States also invested large amounts of money in Germany's industry, helping Germany to prosper enough to begin payments to other European countries. These European countries then made payments to the United States for wartime debts.
Apparently, the United States was not taking isolationism seriously at the government and business levels. With so much trade and capital going into Asia, Latin America, and Europe, the true picture of United States isolationism is not difficult to perceive.
When he addressed the Connecticut Chamber of Commerce in May 1925, Curtis Wilbur, secretary of the Navy under Coolidge, stated, "Americans have over twenty million tons of merchant shipping to carry the commerce of the world, worth three billion dollars. We have laws and property abroad, exclusive of government loans, of over ten billions of dollars....These vast interests must be defended unhesitatingly and with all our power whenever attacked...To defend America we must be prepared to defend its interests and our flag in every corner of the globe." Anyone hearing the speech could envision the United States moving toward increased global involvement.
Although it was a defeated country, Germany remained potentially the most powerful nation in Europe. The determination of the Germans had not been broken, and they still had the desire to dominate Western Europe. Also during the 1920s, Russia was under the ruthless domination of Joseph Stalin. Stalin assumed the leadership of the Russians after the death of Vladimir Lenin, the man who inspired the Russian Revolution in 1917. Stalin expounded Karl Marx's philosophy that the capitalism of Western society was mankind's enemy. This threatening philosophy, together with Germany's potential, became a concern to the United States when the weak positions of France and Great Britain were considered. Without United States support, France and Great Britain could not keep the Russian or German armies from moving quickly across Europe.
An area of United States intervention that did not receive much publicity was Latin America. Although encouraging self-determination in many countries, the United States was protecting its own interests by militarily occupying Latin American countries such as Santo Domingo, Haiti, and Nicaragua. In 1928, a State Department officer, J. Reuben Clark, released his memorandum on the Monroe Doctrine. Clark insisted that previous American involvement in Latin American affairs sought only to guarantee hemispheric "freedom, independence, and territorial integrity against the imperialistic designs of Europe." However, a respected mutual relationship was accepted by Latin America only after the implementation of President Herbert Hoover's Good Neighbor Policy.
Coolidge's popularity remained strong throughout his term of office. His differences with farmers had eased because of an increase in rural farm prosperity. Many people agreed with President Coolidge when he told Congress in his last annual message in December 1928, "The country can regard the present with satisfaction and anticipate the future with optimism." A New York Times editorial stated that Coolidge had "fitted exactly into the needs and inarticulate desires of the American people when he became President."
When President Coolidge finished his term of office, the people of the United States were confident and optimistic about the future. However, few people expected that Coolidge's reply to reelection talk would be so famous. His answer was simply, "I do not choose to run." The wisdom and timing of this decision would be indelibly marked in the minds of United States citizens.
The Hoover Years. Herbert Hoover became president in the spring of 1929 under extremely good economic conditions. In his inaugural address he stated, "Ours is a land rich in resources; stimulating in its glorious beauty; filled with millions of happy homes; blessed with comfort and opportunity. In no nation are the fruits of accomplishment more secure."
Hoover was born in 1874 in West Branch, Iowa, and attended Stanford University. After his graduation, Hoover accepted a position working for an English mining company that allowed him to travel around the world. By 1914, the future president was quite wealthy and embarked on a new career as a public servant—he served as secretary of commerce under presidents Harding and Coolidge. Unfortunately for Hoover, his background did not adequately prepare him for what he was about to face.
Shortly after Charles Mitchell (Chairman of the National City Bank of New York) stated that "the industrial situation of the United States is absolutely sound," the stock market collapsed. The nation was not prepared for such a shock; thousands of people were bankrupt. Mitchell's opinion was one which many people agreed with in October 1929; no reason existed to think otherwise. Between 1923 and 1929, the United States enjoyed one of the most prosperous periods in its history. Goods were being produced at a rapid rate as millions of citizens bought new automobiles, houses, and modern conveniences.
Although the United States still had poor people, no other nation on earth could boast of so much prosperity and achievement. Hoover may have been exaggerating when he said at his presidential nomination in 1928, "We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land." These words were based on an extremely successful economy and a prosperous citizenry. His remark was followed by a statement issued from the Committee on Recent Economic Changes. The committee reported in 1929 that "never before has the human race made such progress in solving the problem of production."
The nation's economy seemed healthy in the late 1920s, especially if one looked at the growth of industry. The main cause of this rapid growth was the production of motor vehicles. Between 1920 and 1929, the annual sales of automobiles, trucks, and buses jumped from 2,227,000 to 5,337,000. The mass production assembly lines kept prices at figures most families could afford. The popularity of the automobile led to tremendous growth of another industry—oil. The Greater Seminole oil field was discovered in 1926, and the Oklahoma City oil field was discovered two years later. Both provided plenty of oil for the nation's use.
Construction also flourished during the 1920s. Hundreds of thousands of new homes were built for returning veterans of World War I and for many who sought a suburban lifestyle. Jobs were plentiful, and wages kept up with the cost of living. Wages continued to rise, and working hours steadily decreased before 1929.
The unionization of labor was well underway by the 1920s. Private companies strongly resented unions and fought hard to keep them out of their businesses. Most union members were affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, an organization representing many skilled crafts. The unions stated that they stood for employee benefits such as better wages, shorter working hours, and improved working conditions. However, companies stated that they themselves would improve the employee's situation without the help of unions. Some businesses organized their own company unions in an effort to combat the larger union movement.
Although very favorable economic conditions existed in the 1920s, major defects quickly appeared. Some large industries were never as successful as they tried to appear. When the stock market crashed, the nation's troubled economy was shown to be very weak. Agriculture was the primary area of the country's economy that gave an indication of troubled times ahead. With advanced machinery, better quality seeds, and increased efficiency, farmers should have been very prosperous.
Unfortunately, these farmers were producing more than they could sell. Because of such an abundance of food, prices continued to fall, thus lowering profits. Competition from foreign countries, especially Canada and Australia, further complicated matters. After President Hoover was elected, federally funded programs were adapted to alleviate the plight of United States agriculture. Unfortunately, these programs lost millions of dollars for the government because of the Depression.
The United States' foreign trade program provided another indication of the nation's unhealthy economic condition. Although foreign exports exceeded imports, loans to foreign countries were used to buy goods from the United States. In a sense, the people in the United States were paying for their own exports. This practice was extremely dangerous and depended on continually loaning money to foreign countries to maintain exports.
The problem of credit also arose. Many citizens who could not afford the farm and factory products resorted to buying on credit. Yet without available credit, customer purchases would be cut and products would go unsold and be stockpiled. A decrease in customer purchases would cause heavy unemployment. As prosperity in the United States continued to rise in the late 1920s, economists were becoming more aware that the prosperity was artificial. Stock prices increased with speculative buying rather than with substantive investment.
President Hoover's words to the nation on October 25, 1929, were that "the fundamental business of the country, that is, production and distribution of commodities, is on a sound and prosperous basis." Robert P. Lamont, Secretary of Commerce, also indicated that none of the underlying factors that had been associated with or had preceded the decline in business in the past were then in existence. William Green, president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) expressed the view that "within a few months we will be back to a normal state in the industrial and economic life of the nation." However, these assurances did not prevent the coming of the Great Depression.
Headlines from the New York Times on October 29, 1929
A decade of overproduction, vastly overextended credit, uncontrolled spending, and a get-rich-quick philosophy ended very abruptly. On October 24, 1929, excessive selling dropped prices to dangerous levels. Disaster struck on October 29 when frantic stockholders offered 16,410,000 shares for sale at almost giveaway prices. Some stocks could not be sold at any price. The sudden collapse of the stock market caused hundreds of thousands of stockholders to become bankrupt. The stock market crash greatly affected the financial community, particularly Wall Street, and marked the start of the worst economic depression in the history of the United States.
To combat what was happening, President Hoover called for a series of White House meetings to urge businesspeople to maintain wage rates and employment. Labor was cautioned to avoid wage increases. The president requested an increase in federal public works and asked governors to enlarge state-supported projects. In December 1929, Congress reduced both corporate and individual income taxes.
Many people commended the president's actions. On December 1, the New York Times wrote, "Too much praise cannot be given the president for the prompt and resolute and skillful way in which he set about reassuring the country after the financial collapse." Despite some feeling of optimism, by 1930, people could clearly see the effects of the Depression. Four million people were already jobless. President Hoover pleaded for private business and industry to help in whatever way they could. Local and state officials were encouraged to support the needy people in their areas. However, this plea was difficult to carry out because of the overwhelming demands from the destitute citizens. President Hoover strongly resisted the appeals for more federal funds. He was firmly convinced that the private sector of the country would rise to the occasion and meet the crisis.
Outlook for the Rich. By 1929, 40 percent of the country's total income was derived from the families in the top 10 percent financially. This elite group purchased the normal consumer goods, but they also indulged in risky speculative investments hoping to get even richer as quickly as possible. Much of their money went into the stock market and was later lost. Some individuals became poor literally overnight. However, others within this group had enough wealth stored up to absorb the loss and to suffer some inconveniences without going bankrupt.
The Depression was not necessarily the fault of the nation's wealthy people, who caused bitter and even radical talk. This talk showed the frustration many people had toward the nation's economic system. Resentment arose easily in a country that had storehouses of wheat not being used while children were going hungry. People went without clothing while warehouses remained full of surplus cotton. British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote in 1932 that the Depression was "not a crisis of poverty, but a crisis of abundance." The problem was getting this abundance to the needy.
Although many workers were laid off, business executives maintained their positions. Owners of small companies performed the menial tasks they had previously paid others to do. Large automobile corporations, such as Ford, Chrysler, and General Motors, had made such huge profits during the 1920s that the cutbacks of the Depression only curtailed large increases in profits; many executive employees were secure in their jobs throughout the Depression years. Other relatively secure employment was found in newspaper publishing companies, tobacco companies, and private utility companies. Having a job during the years immediately following 1929 made one comparatively prosperous.
Plight of the Poor. The nation's jobless people lined up by the millions for unemployment relief. Public kitchens operated in many urban areas to distribute soup, bread, and other food to starving families. Some people with money bought boxes of apples to sell on the street. The most menial jobs would be taken as soon as they were available. People lost farms, homes, and other property through foreclosure proceedings. Many people in the United States were beginning to experience a sense of hopelessness.
During the summer of 1932, World War I veterans showed their frustration by marching on Washington. This public display was a demand for the payment of war bonuses voted to them by Congress in 1924. The Patman Bill, passed by the House of Representatives, called for the payment of the remaining bonus money. When the Senate voted the bill down, thousands of veterans remained in Washington and demonstrated against the decision. Riots broke out against the police, and Federal troops led by General Douglas MacArthur were called in to remove the veterans.
Also during the summer of 1932, farmers in the Midwest demanded that prices of their products be raised. Milo Reno led a group of angry farmers to form the National Farmers' Holiday Association at Des Moines, Iowa. This association began strikes in the Midwest and even blocked the efforts of other farmers trying to get their milk and livestock to market. By 1933, farm prices were still declining. Agricultural income was only one-third of what it was in 1929. Wheat could be bought for twenty-five cents a bushel; before the Depression it sold for one dollar a bushel. Cotton prices fell almost as drastically.
Unemployment rose from 4 million in 1930 to over 12 million by 1933; approximately one-fourth of the labor force in the United States was out of work. Unfortunately, the private sector of the nation did not "rise to the occasion" as President Hoover had hoped. Some families lived on two or three dollars a week for food, and many rural families had no money at all.
Herbert Hoover
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to listen to Herbert Hoover give a radio address on the topic of unemployment relief on October 18, 1931.
In March 1932, Hoover grudgingly approved Congress's distribution of 40 million bushels of wheat and 5 million bales of cotton. The president insisted that the Red Cross distribute these products and others, keeping with his stand that the Federal government would not engage in actual distribution of relief.
However, in June 1932, Hoover approved a loan from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation of 300 million dollars for direct relief. One hundred million dollars also was provided for rediscount banks that gave credit to banks and financial institutions. In July 1932, Congress provided for the creation of a Home Loan Bank System to help owners who were about to lose their homes. Although these measures were helpful and appeased some people, more federal funds were needed to attack the Depression. More than two thousand banks closed their doors in 1931; billions of dollars in deposits were lost. The situation of the nation was desperate. In fact, national circumstances were so bad during the Hoover administration that the American people actually resented his name and used it in a scornful or derogatory sense.
The "Dust Bowl" of the 1930s forced thousands of families to migrate westward. Parts of Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico and Colorado, beginning in the early 1930s, suffered a period of severe droughts, and the soil began to blow away. The organic matter, clay, and slit in the soil were carried great distances by the winds, in some cases darkening the sky as far as the Atlantic coast, and sand and heavier materials drifted against houses, fences, and barns. In many places, 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) of topsoil were blown away. About a third of the remaining families had to accept government belief.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York, on January 30, 1882. Both parents were independently wealthy, so he was able to receive the best education in private schools. After high school, Roosevelt attended Harvard. During this time, his distant cousin, Republican Theodore Roosevelt, became president. Although from a family of Democrats, Franklin supported Teddy in his bid for the highest office. It was at this time that Franklin met Teddy's niece, Eleanor. The two fell in love and were married in 1905.

Roosevelt attended Columbia Law School about the same time and dropped out after two years. He had already passed the state bar exam and got a job with a Wall Street business. Roosevelt's political career kicked off in 1910 when he ran for the New York state senate.
Entering the Political Arena

Roosevelt served as a New York state senator for two years. In 1912, he campaigned for future president Woodrow Wilson and was rewarded by being chosen as the assistant secretary of the navy, the same position in which Teddy Roosevelt had once served. Franklin took over the position in 1913 and served there until 1920. In that same year, he was chosen as the Democratic vice-presidential candidate with James Cox. They were soundly defeated by Warren Harding, and soon afterward, Roosevelt resumed a career as an attorney.
Did you know?
Guillain-Barre Syndrome—before better knowledge of medical conditions, it would have seemed likely Roosevelt suffered from polio. It now appears it was Guillain-Barre Syndrome. This disease causes paralysis that begins in the legs and moves upward. With quick treatment after diagnosis, the effects can usually be reversed. Without treatment, the disease can cause respiratory failure and death.

Tragedy struck Roosevelt in 1921 when he came down with what was thought to be polio. It is now considered likely that he had Guillain-Barre Syndrome. Either way, Roosevelt found himself paralyzed from the waist down, and he would remain that way the rest of his life. He placed himself under intense therapy but it did little good. He did learn to walk with a brace and cane, if necessary, although he stayed in a wheelchair much of the time.

Rather than mope about his misfortune, Franklin Roosevelt ran for the governorship of New York in 1928 and won. He continued as that state's leader until the presidential race of 1932.
First Term in Office (1933-1937)

With America in the throes of the Great Depression, Roosevelt ran for president against the incumbent, Herbert Hoover. Much of the blame for the nation's economic woes was placed on Hoover's shoulders, and he was easily defeated by Roosevelt. By the time he took office, nearly one fourth of all Americans were out of work, and millions were homeless. Roosevelt immediately set about trying to get the U.S. back on its economic feet.

Nearly all of his first term was devoted to the economic crisis. Roosevelt initiated a number of programs during the early days of his presidency, including:

New Deal;
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA);
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC);
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC);
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA);
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA);
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC);
Public Works Administration (PWA); and
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).

Not all of Roosevelt's time was spent on domestic issues. He also initiated the Good Neighbor Policy in relation to Latin American foreign affairs. Rather than continue being tied down to affairs south of the border, Roosevelt changed policy by no longer intervening in Latin American nations where American businesses were located. The U.S. stopped supporting the Cuban government, pulled out of Haiti, and released its hold on other nations. This policy made sense in light of the severe financial woes affecting the country.
Second Term (1937-1941)

Believing that Roosevelt was making headway against the global economic crisis, American voters responded by sweeping him back into office in 1936. Congress was heavily dominated by fellow democrats. Roosevelt's second term turned out to be quite rough.

Little additional legislature was passed to combat the effects of the Great Depression. Instead, Roosevelt had to deal with an increasingly hostile Supreme Court. The court had declared the National Recovery Act to be unconstitutional and was also challenging some of his other decisions. In response, Roosevelt stunned the nation by requesting the authority to add six members to the U.S. Supreme Court. The request did not sit well with Congressional leaders on both sides, and Roosevelt's effort failed.

Even as the situation at home continued to be uncertain, another form of uncertainty began to appear in Europe. Benito Mussolini already had control of Italy and Adolf Hitler was solidifying his hold on Germany. It was becoming apparent that war was once again on the horizon.
Third Term (1941-1945)

The 1940 presidential election was marked with a first in American history. It was an unwritten rule, begun by George Washington, that no president would serve more than two terms in office. President Roosevelt bucked that trend by running for and winning a third term in office. World War II was already underway, and it became apparent Great Britain was going to need help if it was to win against Germany.

The United States had maintained a policy of neutrality during the conflict. At the same time, it was obvious that Hitler needed to be stopped. To lend aid to either side of the war would ruin America's position of neutrality. Despite this, Roosevelt signed an agreement called Lend-Lease to give military supplies and support in exchange for bases.

At the same time, Roosevelt announced the beginning of a peacetime military draft and asked American companies to begin gearing up for war. It seemed certain the United States would be sucked into the conflict sooner or later. It turned out to be sooner: Japanese planes attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

Roosevelt met with leaders from Great Britain (Winston Churchill), the Soviet Union (Joseph Stalin), and China (Chiang Kai-shek) to map out a strategy to win the war. By the end of his third term, it was clear that Germany was going to lose, and plans were implemented for postwar policies.
Last Term (1945)

As Roosevelt's third term drew to a close, it became clear to his aides that he was in ill health. For some, it was obvious he probably was not going to survive his fourth term and so it was imperative to pick a strong vice-presidential candidate. The current vice-president, Henry Wallace, had fallen out of favor with Democratic leaders. Roosevelt looked over potential running mates and chose a rising young star in Democratic circles, Harry Truman.

In March of 1945, Roosevelt took some time off to rest before his scheduled appearance at the newly formed United Nations. On April 12, 1945, Roosevelt complained of a severe headache and passed away of a cerebral hemorrhage.

Franklin Roosevelt has been considered by many to be one of America's great presidents and with good reason. He pulled the United States through the Great Depression and led it to victory during World War II.

On the other hand, his policies did set up conditions for a welfare state. Personal taxes had to be raised to fund these policies including withholding taxes to manage Social Security. The Federal government grew enormously under his administration, providing a number of programs that remain today, such as:

National Labor Relations Board (NLRB);
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC);
Social Security (SS).

Like other great presidents, Roosevelt did what he thought was best for America without regard to partisan politics. He often made Democrats angrier than Republicans over decisions he made. Either way, he was strong-willed enough to see the United States through some of the toughest times in its history.

The famed saying, "Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their country" was never more apropos than during the early 1930s. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was very well prepared for the job. His political career gave him valuable experience and helped him to function with great confidence and efficiency as president of the United States.

His Personal Preparation. Being a distant cousin of former president Theodore Roosevelt gave Franklin Roosevelt's name an image that commanded respect. His father, James Roosevelt, was a wealthy railroad man. Franklin Roosevelt had private tutors until he was fourteen years old. He spent a great deal of time in outdoor activities such as fishing, bird-watching, and livestock farming. Two of his hobbies were collecting model ships and stamps. Roosevelt's outgoing personality and inner confidence continued to grow through his careful training during his childhood in Hyde Park, New York.

After graduating from Groton School in Massachusetts, young Franklin entered Harvard University where he spent four productive years. Roosevelt was editor of the school's newspaper, an experience that served him well during his political career. After Harvard, Roosevelt graduated from Columbia University Law School in 1907 and began private practice with a law firm in New York.

The future president was elected as a Democratic state senator in New York in 1910 and was reelected in 1912. He served as assistant secretary of the Navy from 1913 to 1921 under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt ran for vice president on a Democratic ticket with James M. Cox, the governor of Ohio. However, the Republican candidate, Warren G. Harding, won the election by a landslide, and Roosevelt returned to private law practice in New York.

In the summer of 1921, Roosevelt contracted polio. His legs were almost completely paralyzed, but he refused to be defeated by the disease. An indication of his determination can be seen in his statement, "Once I spent two years in bed trying to move my big toe; after that job anything seems easy."

Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1928 in a political comeback. As governor, he wrestled with problems at the state level similar to those that Hoover encountered at the national level. In 1930, he started a broad relief program in New York that set a pattern he could later use for the entire country. The name of Roosevelt and the fact that he was not a Republican greatly enhanced his chances for election as president in 1932. He had a great love for his country, and he had a plan to help the nation recover from the economic depression.

His Personal Philosophy. Franklin Roosevelt's thinking was undoubtedly influenced by his father. James Roosevelt was a Democrat with conservative tendencies and had been a diplomat under President Grover Cleveland. He influenced his son to develop courage and positive decision-making skills. James Roosevelt strongly emphasized the principle of not allowing special-interest groups to force one into making decisions. This background laid the foundation for his son's political career.

Another person who heavily influenced Franklin's outlook on life was his distant cousin, Theodore Roosevelt, who was also from New York. Theodore Roosevelt was the twenty-sixth president of the United States. In addition to both men becoming presidents, both were outdoorsmen and continually returned to estates in New York for recreation and relaxation during their careers. Both men had physical handicaps; Franklin's was polio, Theodore's was asthma.

Theodore and Franklin had private tutors while growing up and were taught to work hard and to give fair and unprejudiced treatment to all people. Both loved their country and believed in firm action to defend it when necessary. Also, the Roosevelt cousins attended Harvard University and Columbia Law School and served as assistants to the secretary of the Navy. Both Roosevelts also used dramatics extremely well in the political arena. The two men ran for the office of vice president and both began their political careers in the state of New York.

A political difference between the two men was that Theodore was a Republican and Franklin a Democrat. Yet, Franklin Roosevelt greatly admired his older cousin and was not hesitant to adopt some of his progressive ideas in politics. He initiated programs involving risks, he tried new ideas and changed outmoded traditional programs, and he increased the efficiency of the government to improve the nation's fiscal and social conditions.
Before he was elected president, Franklin D. Roosevelt had promised the people a New Deal. The New Deal was a set of policies that was produced from the ideas of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson and was mixed with Franklin Roosevelt's own philosophy. The New Deal promised that injustices within the business and financial communities would be controlled, and agriculture and labor groups were promised more welfare relief. Roosevelt's New Deal was not a radical move to socialism as some claimed, but was rather a shift toward a more middle-ground course of action.

Practical Promises. Roosevelt's plan was to distribute the nation's abundance broadly to those in need. He determined that if the private sector would not find a way to solve the nation's economic problems, then the government would solve them. In his first inaugural address, Roosevelt began his psychological attack on the Depression with his famous phrase, "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." This phrase was to become a source of encouragement to the nation throughout the Roosevelt administration. In his address, Roosevelt called for strict control of banking and credit, a work project that would employ many jobless citizens, and a Good Neighbor Policy in world affairs.

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The people of the United States needed the encouragement Roosevelt's talk gave. Their response to his words was overwhelmingly positive; they were ready to accept the challenge for discipline, duty, and a return to values of high morality. Many people believed that the nation had fallen into evil ways in the 1920s and was now reaping what it had sown.

In President Roosevelt's New Deal, the emphasis was to build from the bottom up, not from the top down. The key to the program was the hard-working common American. Farmers, small banks and businesses, and average homeowners were among those who would be helped. Tariff reduction would also be sought to encourage international trade. Roosevelt declared publicly that he was going to try bold experiments; if one experiment did not work, he would attempt another.

To carry out the details of his New Deal, Roosevelt carefully selected a cabinet of competent people. Much of the success of his plan depended on the loyalty and hard work of these individuals. They had to believe in the ability of their president, and they must have confidence in his goals. Although this cabinet included individuals of a variety of political persuasions and experiences, it constituted an important part in the success of the New Deal.

Positive Action. President Roosevelt intended to put his plans for national recovery into immediate action. As soon as his term in office began, Roosevelt initiated his First Hundred Days program. This program stressed passing as much legislation as soon as possible; any legislative action at all was better than the economic standstill the nation was experiencing.

One of the first things Roosevelt did as president was to get Congress to pass the Emergency Banking Act. This act prevented panic withdrawals of funds from banks by the public. The act also called for the banks to close, be evaluated by the government, and reopen only if approved as being fiscally sound.

President Roosevelt gave the first of his famous "fireside chats" on March 12, 1933. He assured the people that their money would be safer "...in a reopened bank than under the mattress." The president's efforts caused people to regain confidence in the nation's banking system and to stop hoarding money. A steady flow of money began to return to most banks. Only five percent of the banks permanently closed. The Emergency Banking Act was not an effort to nationalize banks as some supposed; on the contrary, the government saved the nation's private banks. The act also removed the nation's currency from the gold standard; the people could no longer pay or demand payment in gold.

In attempting to reduce unemployment from a figure of twelve million, Congress established the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). This organization gave jobs to young men between seventeen and twenty-five years of age. These young men received thirty dollars a month for planting trees, maintaining parks, and doing various building projects. Many of the hundreds of thousands who entered this program also received meals, housing, and clothing.

Congress passed the Federal Emergency Relief Act on May 12. Five hundred million dollars were made available to individual states for relief to the unemployed. Much of this money was given out as work relief, giving people a sense of worth and dignity as they earned their checks.

The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was passed in May and gave farm prices "equality of purchasing power." This act gave farmers higher prices for less production, and they were paid not to farm certain amounts of acreage of crops such as wheat, cotton, corn, tobacco, and rice, or to produce more than specified quotas of hogs, milk, and milk products.

This principle of restriction bothered most farmers, but they accepted it as a temporary measure to help the economy and themselves. Because of legal problems, a modification of the same act was passed in 1936 to replace the Agricultural Adjustment Act. The main addition provided that farmers who practiced soil conservation would be paid by the government for doing so. Another bill, commonly referred to as the second Agricultural Adjustment Act, was passed in 1938.

In addition to paying farmers not to produce certain acreage, this second Agricultural Adjustment Act provided for surplus crops to be bought and stored by the government for bad years that might come.

Agriculture was getting the help it needed, but the nation's industry was still in an extremely critical position. On June 16, 1933, Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act aimed at business standards used by various industries. The petty, prejudiced, and merciless practices of competition that were common in the years immediately preceding the Depression had to be eliminated.

Private companies and the Federal government were asked to form fair business codes together. Included in these codes were minimum and maximum prices, production controls, credit terms, and other needed codes. However, by May 1935, the act was declared unconstitutional. Industry refused to control prices, purchasing power did not increase, and the competition standards practiced by many companies were inconsistent. Although the National Industrial Recovery Act had little effect on the recovery of the nation's economy, it did influence such changes as minimum and maximum wages, the abuse of child labor, and collective bargaining for workers.

On August 5, 1935, the Social Security Act was signed. The demands for the distribution of wealth and support for the aged caused the New Deal to break with the tradition of letting families provide for their elderly. The Social Security Act provided for old age pensions, old age insurance, unemployment insurance, and a number of other public health programs. Social Security was handled solely by the Federal government, although employees and employers paid into it. Many people were financially helped by this act, and the morale of the country was significantly raised.

President Roosevelt had been interested in natural resource conservation for many years. Because of this interest, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was approved. Thirty dams were built on the Tennessee River and its tributaries to provide flood control and other benefits. After the dams were built, boats were able to navigate the Tennessee River from Paducah, Kentucky, to Knoxville, Tennessee, a distance of some 630 miles.

Soil was improved in that area because grass and trees were planted, in addition to crops, to prevent soil erosion. The Tennessee Valley Authority lowered charges for electricity and greatly helped the rebuilding of the Tennessee Valley's economy. Other conservation projects were carried out in the Northwest and Southwest regions of the country.

After his overwhelming victory in 1936, President Roosevelt had to protect his New Deal from the opposition of the United States Supreme Court. The Court had continually rejected measures of the New Deal as unconstitutional, hindering the program greatly. Roosevelt was worried that the nine justices were too conservative and growing too old. He wanted to appoint six additional justices as the nine members passed seventy years of age. However, this plan to have fifteen Supreme Court justices was met with vigorous resistance. Although his idea failed, the Supreme Court decisions tended to be less harsh against the New Deal. Also, as conservative justices died, they were replaced by more liberal-thinking justices. Roosevelt had lost a battle, but he was beginning to win the war.
In the 1930s, many people had only enough money to buy food. They were unable to secure automobiles, a college education, or medical and dental services. In some areas of the nation, people paid bills with produce and personal items.

President Roosevelt's New Deal specifically dealt with the plight of minorities in the United States, especially African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Native Americans. The New Deal for minorities was administered by such individuals as Harold Ickes, former president of the Chicago Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and Eleanor Roosevelt, the president's wife.

Some of their goals for improved conditions were to cut down the unemployment level of African Americans, to help the thousands of farm tenants and sharecroppers who lost their land, to help minorities receive better wages, and to improve the living conditions of migrant workers.

President Roosevelt's foreign policy was similar to that of Woodrow Wilson's. Roosevelt sought world peace and strove to have a Good Neighbor Policy. He was able to develop a working relationship with Canada in the north and Latin American countries in the south. He did not have as much success with Europe and Asia, however.

President Roosevelt personally spoke to representatives of the Nazi and Japanese powers, and he also wrote letters condemning their actions leading to another global war. As his attempts for peace failed, the president increased the nation's preparation for war. Through fireside chats, press conferences, and messages to Congress, President Roosevelt endeavored to keep the people informed and to prepare the people for the coming conflict.

By the end of the 1930s, the United States was recovering well from the Depression. The progress from the eight years of Roosevelt's New Deal was very evident. Although millions of people were still out of work, the positive action of Roosevelt's program had put millions of others back to work.

The president had inspired a discouraged people, and the people had begun to see that conditions were better. With a war approaching, economic problems would certainly decrease. Formerly unemployed people would either be in military service, have work supporting the war effort, or take positions servicemen had vacated.

The impact of the Great Depression and the New Deal changed the way the American people felt about their government. The federal program became large and more powerful as it expanded its role in many social and economic areas. Many Americans came to accept the federal and state government's involvement and responsibility in caring for the needy and regulating the economy. The Depression experience changed the self-interest that characterized the 1920s and brought about community cooperation and compassion.

Some conservatives believed the New Deal was turning the United States toward socialism. Others felt it alleviated some of the worst effects of the Depression and defused tensions which helped preserve a democratic capitalist system when other nations turned to fascism or socialism. The central legacy of the New Deal was increased government involvement in the lives of the people. Groups and individuals still evaluate the impact of the New Deal legislation on the roles of state and government. The key is to find a balance.

War is not a desirable solution to a country's economic problems, but it does help remedy the crippled economy of an industrial nation. Such was the case of the United States at the end of the 1930s.
The pall of economic depression had settled in across the nation. Wealthy families had become misers, watching every penny spent while wondering how long it would be before the well ran dry. Middle-class families had enough to live on for awhile, but then saw their meager reserves dry up. Poor families were simply devastated. With nothing to fall back on, they ended up wandering the streets begging for food, spending endless hours in soup kitchen lines, and living in cardboard box shanties in some nameless Hooverville.

In the Midwest, poor farmers were dealing with a horrific drought made worse by improper farming practices, which made barren vast acres of once-prime farm land. Like many city dwellers, these farmers tended to small gardens that barely survived, offering only scant reprieve for starving children.

Families everywhere found themselves in great peril. Dads could no longer meet the needs of their children. Wives watched their husbands wither away in self-doubt and frustration. The kids woke up many mornings knowing there would be no food that day. If someone got sick, there were no means to provide medical care. The specter of starvation and deprivation remained firmly entrenched for many Americans.
New Deal Limitations

Just prior to Black Thursday and the plunge into economic nightmare, the United States appeared to be doing quite well. The unemployment rate was a mere 3 percent, and the economy seemed to be booming right along. By 1933, just four years later, the picture had drastically changed. Nearly 25 percent of the nation's workforce were out of work as retailers, farms, corporations, and banks went belly-up. With more than 11 million people out of work, there was no way government policy decisions could provide employment opportunities for everyone. To be sure, the Federal government was able to employ a large number of workers as part of the Public Works Administration and other programs. But even then, several segments of the population were left out in the cold, so to speak.

Women, for example, often did not get hired for positions. Many employers believed that they should not take jobs away from men. Even if a woman was fortunate enough to find work, she was rarely paid the same wages and often had to endure ridicule from co-workers. Although President Roosevelt had no issues with bringing women into his cabinet, his programs often discriminated against them. In some cases, programs such as the Civilian Conservation Corps would not hire women at all. But even women's plight paled in comparison to most American minorities.

Discrimination and prejudices against blacks did not take a holiday during the Depression years. Most had been fairly poor before the Depression hit so they were part of that large sector of the population that was suffering the most from tough economic times. New Deal programs did little to alleviate the situation. For example:

whites received jobs over blacks in professional circles;
Federal programs requiring skilled labor generally rejected black applicants;
If a black man was able to get a job, he was most often paid less than white counterparts;
the terrible practice of lynching people continued unabated without Federal laws prohibiting such acts.

Despite little headway being made in the public sector, Roosevelt did appoint a number of African Americans to government positions. He also received a great deal of support for his programs at the polls from the black community.

Another group that struggled during the Depression years was migrant workers, who generally hailed from Mexico. Many large farms in the Southwest and California relied on them during the year. As was the case in other industries, workers sometimes tried to unionize and were met with increasing violence. And as was true of other minorities, many of Roosevelt's programs discriminated against them in hiring and wage issues. Because the Social Security Act did not carry a provision for farmers, these workers could not receive any benefits. As the economic condition worsened, many migrant workers left the United States and returned home to Mexico.

Of all the minorities, American Indians fared the best. New Deal programs actually strengthened Indian land claims and sometimes restored tribal ownership. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 provided for these positive changes.
New Deal Criticism

Like every president before and every one since, Roosevelt was criticized for the decisions he made. His New Deal programs fared no better. On one hand, people such as Alfred Smith attacked the president for giving the Federal government too much control over business and accused him of trying to establish a socialized economic system. They pointed out that Roosevelt wanted to regulate the production and supply of goods in addition to controlling prices.

Others argued against various programs such as the Revenue Act of 1935 that raised taxes on the wealthy and corporations. They contended this type of taxation was an attempt to redistribute the wealth by punishing those who had worked hard to get ahead in life.

On the flip side, there was a large segment of the population who believed FDR's programs did not go far enough. Some of these individuals, such as Pulitzer-Prize winning author Upton Sinclair, wanted a more socialistic system put into place. Another political activist, Robert La Follette Jr., sought a platform that keyed on the redistribution of wealth.

One of the most vocal and powerful critics of Roosevelt's policies was prominent politician Huey Long. He strongly believed the president was not doing enough to rectify the economic situation. He wanted to redistribute wealth in a more radical way by confiscating family fortunes of more than 5 million dollars and guaranteeing all people a specific yearly income, a car, and a college education. He had made plans to run against Roosevelt in the 1936 election, but was killed the year before.

In retrospect, modern-day critics have found reasons both to support and deride Roosevelt's policies during the Great Depression. On one hand, the nation was in the throes of an economic plight unlike any seen before. Something had to be done to get America back on its feet. But critics point out a number of flaws with his New Deals programs.

They threatened the free enterprise system through Federal control;
His administration created a giant Federal bureaucracy requiring huge tax dollars to maintain;
The Public Works Administration and other job programs required high taxes, which took money out of most Americans' pockets. Consequently, there was less to spend on goods, which would have boosted production and added jobs;
Farmers were paid not to produce crops and received government subsidies instead. In some cases, if farmers overproduced a product, they were told to destroy it.

Whether Roosevelt did the right thing or not as he struggled with solutions to the Great Depression, economists have learned a great deal about the causes of economic downturns and have been able to prevent such a debacle from happening again. The economics of a nation involve complex issues intertwined with one another and rarely offer simple solutions.
New Deal Comes to an End

One group of people managed to do quite well during the depression. Pro-union legislation, like the Wagner Act, gave strong support to unionized labor. The Wagner Act:

established the right of workers to join unions;
provided the right to engage in collective bargaining;
supported the right to strike.

As can be imagined, unions made huge gains during the Depression years. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) became the prominent labor union. Its leaders, John Lewis and Walter Reuther, challenged working conditions in a number of industries. The sit-down strike, in which workers simply stopped working and refused to leave, became popular. With economic conditions so poor, unions were able to greatly expand their membership during the 1930s.

Critics of Roosevelt's New Deal policies received ammunition when America went into a recession in 1937. After unemployment had dropped to twelve percent the previous year, it skyrocketed to nearly eighteen percent. Roosevelt cut back on some programs while raising taxes even higher in hopes of balancing the Federal budget. Even then, the country did not respond well and remained in tough economic times.

By late in the decade, it was clear Roosevelt's New Deal was not solving the economic crisis. Granted, his policies were easing the effects in some areas, but the country was not recovering well. However, on the not-too-distant horizon, economic woes were about to end. The solution came in the form of World War II.
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