Major belief systems

Foundations: c. 8000 B.C.E.–600 C.E.

Major Developments

1. Major belief systems . Basic features of major world belief systems prior to 600 C.E. and where each belief system applied by 600 C.E.
   1. Polytheism
      1. Belief in many gods/goddesses
      2. Early peoples – in awe of nature – blessing/curse
         1. Relationship with land/weather
         2. Totemism – identification of self with various animal symbols
         3. shamanism – identification with unseen spirit worlds
         4. “dreamtime” – Aboriginals
         5. Shinto – Japan
      3. Animism – belief that gods and goddesses inhabited natural features
         1. Africa, islands of Polynesia
      4. Worship of ancestors and fertility
         1. Fertility – soil/women
      5. Class of people emerged to oversee rituals/guide people
         1. priests/shamans held important positions
      6. Space dedicated for early rituals – temples first buildings
      7. Some regional, some transplanted
      8. Nomadic as well as early river civilizations
         1. Greeks/Romans – represented natural human phenomenon, but appeared like humans
         2. Pantheons
            1. elaborate groups – positions for each
            2. Sumerian-Babylonian deities – set of rituals
            3. Olympian deities
            4. “celestial bureaucracy” – China
            5. Aesir and Vanir – northern Europe
      9. Transition to Monotheism – Zoroastrianism
         1. Polytheism faded as myth or legend
         2. Zoroastrianism – partial commitment to monotheism
            1. Founded by priest Zoroaster in 500 B.C.
            2. Based teaching on Avestas
            3. Worship of one god Ahura Mazda – “wise lord”
               1. Son Mithra venerated as well
               2. Ahriman – god of darkness
         3. Belief that Ahura Mazda and Ahriman in cosmic struggle
            1. Mazda’s followers go to heaven
            2. Ahriman’s go to hell
         4. Not monotheism – dual gods of equal power
         5. Flourished in Persia until 600s CE w/ Islam
         6. Remains in India – Parsis
            1. Historians say played a role in shaping Jewish/Christian thought
   2. Judaism
      1. Overview
         1. Hebrews – Jews/Jewish not until 900s BCE
         2. Religion and societal custom
         3. Key part of the Western world’s ethical, cultural, intellectual foundation
         4. World’s first monotheistic faith
            1. Devoted exclusively to worship of one deity
      2. Founding
         1. Abraham’s Covenant
            1. Patriarch lived in Sumerian city of Ur, clan leader
            2. Covenant with god YHWH (Yahweh/Jehovah)
               1. For…complete religious allegiance
               2. Get…Hebrews “chosen people”
                  1. led to “promised land” – Canaan - Israel
            3. Between 2000 > 1850 BCE left Ur – faith created
            4. Son Isaac carried on faith and then grandson Jacob
               1. Took name Israel – twelve sons founders of the Twelve Tribes of Israel
         2. Slavery in Egypt
            1. 1700 BCE – during time of famine – Hebrews migrated to Egypt
            2. Freed by Moses – returned to Promised Land
               1. Set up kingdom of Israel – led by monarchy
            3. Hebrew Kingdoms
               1. Ruled by judges, then kings
                  1. King David and son Solomon – height – 1000 BCE
                     1. First temple built
                     2. David military leader – united
                        1. Skilled musician – psalms
                        2. Made prosperous – central to trade routes
                  2. After Solomon’s death, split into Israel and Judah
               2. Assyrians invaded, destroyed temple, scattered
                  1. Babylonians finished the job
                     1. Nebuchadnezzar
                        1. Babylonian Captivity
                        2. Forced the writing of the Torah
                  2. Temple rebuilt, kingdom swallowed by Romans
                     1. Region renamed Judea – Jews
                     2. Under Roman rule gave birth to new religion - Christianity
            4. Revolted against Greeks and gained autonomy, but later
               1. 70 and 132 CE suppressed by Roman campaigns
                  1. Jews killed, temple leveled
                  2. Jews transplanted through Africa, Europe, Middle East, Americas
                     1. Diaspora – exile - linked not by geography, but cultural identity
                     2. From then on set up synagogues where they could worship as a community
                     3. Led by rabbis - cleris
      3. Beliefs
         1. One creator – who made the world/all life
            1. differed itself from hundreds of nature gods
            2. Created world for humans to enjoy and practice free will
            3. Destiny of world is paradise, reached with divine help
            4. Task of human beings
               1. Serve and Honor God – follow Ten Commandments
               2. Promote the ethics of the prophets
               3. Maintain the identity of the people
         2. Beliefs
            1. Afterlife
            2. Set of traditions/doctrines
            3. philosophy
            4. Personal salvation
         3. Five Books of Moses – Torah
            1. Story of Abraham and descendants
               1. Increased in number – became slaves in Egypt
               2. Egypt – Moses became leader
                  1. brought them back to land promised by God
                  2. Return called the Exodus
                  3. Central event on 40-year trek – Mt. Sinai – Ten Commandments
                     1. Only one God
                     2. No idol worship
                     3. Honor parents
                     4. Murder forbidden
                     5. Stealing forbidden
         4. Moses – author of Torah “teaching” – first five books in Hebrew scripture – Tanakh
            1. Christian Bible first five books of Old Testament
         5. Messiah “Annointed One” would someday appear to free them from oppression
         6. Talmud “Instruction” – strict code of conduct/righteous behavior
            1. ethical monotheism
               1. Dietary restrictions
               2. charity, social responsibility, concern for the poor
               3. Restrictions on sexual practices
                  1. Women respected in home, but extremely patriarchal
            2. retributive principle – eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth
               1. common to Middle East
         7. Practice slavery – like many Middle Eastern religions
      4. Spread
         1. Not a missionary religion
            1. Did little to attempt to convert non-Jews – even 70 years in Babylon
      5. Impact
         1. Christianity
         2. First monotheistic religion
   3. Hinduism
      1. Locations - Belief System Applied
         1. Principal religion of India
         2. Spread through waters of Indian Ocean
            1. Southeast Asia
            2. Malay peninsula, islands of Indian Ocean
            3. Vietnam/Cambodia – some adopted Sanskrit
         3. During Mauryan – Buddhism gained more power
            1. Reestablished during Gupta
         4. Today
            1. Bangladesh
            2. Pakistan
            3. Sri Lanka
      2. Basic Features
         1. Originated Aryan invaders
            1. Vedic roots – no precise date of birth
            2. Indus River people + Aryan invaders – 1500 BC
            3. Vedism – core – four Aryan scriptures
               1. Vedas – knowledge
                  1. Focus on obedience to gods
                  2. Complex rituals/sacrifices for priests
               2. Oral form back to 4500 BCE
               3. Oldest/largest – Rig-Veda – hymns/stories
               4. Gods/goddesses
                  1. Agni – fire god
                  2. Mitra – patron of humankind
                  3. Surya – sun god
                  4. Indra – god of war/storms
         2. Early Hindu scriptures
            1. Upanishads – 900-500 BCE
               1. Essays and poems to outline Hindu spirituality
                  1. Emphasize simplicity
                  2. Inner development of individual
                  3. methods for spiritual improvement
                     1. Yoga – meditative practices
                        1. physical/mental discipline
            2. Puranas – popular tales about gods and heroes
            3. Sutras – moral teachings
            4. Laws of Manu – 200 BCE > 200 CE – support of caste system
            5. Texts that were religious and literary
               1. Mahabharata – grand epic of 90,000 stanzas
                  1. longest poem in the world?
                  2. Great war between two royal houses
                  3. Bhagavad-Gita “Song of the Lord”
                     1. Poetic dialogue between Arjuna/Krishna
                     2. Lectures on moral duty
               2. Ramayana – 350 BCE – adventures of Rama
                  1. Seventh incarnation of Vishnu
         3. Hinduism – Muslim invaders – non-religious practices
            1. “Beyond the Sindhu River”
         4. Roots further back than any other religion still practiced
         5. Not a single faith
            1. Founded by single group/person
            2. Single deity/set of gods
            3. single body of scripture
            4. synthesis of many religious traditions
         6. Combined polytheistic gods of nature of Brahmins and made them represent concepts
         7. Everything part of divine essence – Brahman – “Ultimate Reality” “One”
            1. Brahma enters gods or different forms of one god
            2. Deities – Vishnu – preserver, Shiva - destroyer
         8. Meaningful life has found union with divine soul
            1. Every living creature has atman – individual soul
            2. World is an illusion – maya
               1. causes suffering
               2. Prevents union with Brahman
            3. Union achieved through reincarnation – after death new soul/animal
               1. Cycle of life, death, rebirth – samsara
               2. Spiritual perfection < incarnation and reincarnation
            4. Karma – person’s good or evil deeds – “law of deeds”
               1. Evil actions, spiritual laxity > karmic debt – trapped in samsara
               2. Good actions, spiritual discipline > greater understanding of moral duty – dharma
               3. Need to eliminate karmic debt – gains release - Moksha
            5. Change castes or go to an animal
            6. Methods of achieving moksha
               1. Veda – obedience to gods, ritual practices
                  1. Requires reliance on Brahmin
               2. Upanishads, later scriptures
                  1. proper conduct/spiritual exercises
                  2. prayer, meditation, ritual, worship, good actions
            7. Eventually reaches – moksha
               1. United with the soul of Brahma
               2. No longer experiences worldly sufferings
         9. Does not have single founder
            1. Developed gradually
            2. Embraced variety of forms of worship
         10. Deities
             1. Brahman, but recognizes hundreds of gods/goddesses
                1. including older Vedic deities
                2. All gods – avatars – incarnations of the Brahman
             2. 200 BCE – three gods largest following
                1. Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva
                   1. Vishnu the Preserver
                      1. began as minor Vedic sun god
                      2. Became Savior figure, friend to humanity
                      3. In incarnations, appears as a hero
                         1. 7th - Rama – In Ramayana
                         2. 8th – Krishna – teaches Arjuna
                   2. Shiva the Destoyer
                      1. Vedic – healing, disease, fertility
                      2. God of creation/destruction
                      3. Duality of life and death
                      4. Sexual energy/cosmic regeneration
                      5. Dancer in art
                   3. Most important, least popular – Brahma
                      1. Masculine personification of Brahman
                2. Goddesses – incarnations of mother goddess
                   1. Mahadevi Shakti
                   2. Parvati – wife of Shiva
                   3. Durga – warrior goddess
                   4. Lakshmi – Vishnu’s wife
                   5. Kali – venerated, feared goddess of death
         11. Reinforced caste system – social, political and religious concept
             1. Moral justification through Vedic thought/Hindu theology
             2. Offered hope to those of lower castes
             3. Upper class might achieve moksha
             4. Acceptance of one’s status considered virtuous
                1. Dharma – performance of one’s duties
                2. Social position in life secondary – only illusion – maya
                   1. spiritual development the key
             5. Affect on women
                1. considered legal minors as adults
                2. treated with respect
                3. Married in childhood, divorce rare
                4. Sati – suttee – funeral pyres of dead husbands
                   1. Discouraged by British, outlawed by Indians
         12. Aryan custom – venerating cattle, no beef
         13. Affects daily life
             1. Moral law – dharma – guides actions in world
                1. Human actions produce consequences
                2. Obligations to family and community
      3. Aryans introduced own array of gods/goddesses
         1. Veneration of some animals – especially cattle
      4. Empires
         1. Lost authority under Mauryans – regained w/ Guptas
   4. Confucianism
      1. Overview
         1. Least religious in nature
            1. Main priority – how to reestablish political/social order
         2. No object of worship, clergy, ritual practices
         3. Ethical code based on secular principles
         4. Believed in existence of gods, spirits, heaven, but irrelevant
         5. Morally concerned person most concerned about actions here in the material world
         6. What happens after death can’t really be theorized in meaningful way
            1. …so why waste time
      2. Founding
         1. K’ung Fu-tzu – Latinized Confucius – 551-479 BCE
            1. Reaction to politically chaotic Zhou dynasty
            2. Minor aristocrat/gov’t official Prince of Lue
               1. strong-willed, thinking at odds with rulers
               2. Never could gain high position
                  1. Became educator/political advisor
            3. After retiring pondered relationship individual/society
         2. Gathered followers
            1. Recorded thoughts
            2. Analects – recordings of his conversations with students
         3. Meng-tzu – Mencius (371-289 BCE)
            1. Commentaries on Analects
            2. Helped movement reach highest level
      3. Basic Principles
         1. Good society = benevolent leaders and good heavier from below
         2. Well being of group more important than that of individual
         3. Order/hierarchy key, but gov’t must be good
            1. No provision for possibility of female rulers
            2. Meng-tzu – Mandate of Heaven – moral justification
               1. Unjust rulers lose the Mandate of Heaven
         4. Society matches hierarchy of family – juniors deference to seniors
         5. Home most important institution
            1. Blessed w/ filial piety – love and respect for elders/ancestors
         6. Five relationships for social tranquility – reciprocity/mutual respect
            1. just ruler and loyal subjects
            2. loving father and respectful son
            3. husband righteous and wife obedient
            4. Older brother genteel and younger brother humble
            5. older friend considerate and younger friend deferent
         7. Females as subservient
            1. Men ruled society, fought wars, acted as scholars
            2. Marry as many as they want, divorce any who fail male heir
            3. Women exclusively homemakers/mothers
            4. Laws prohibited from owning property
            5. Not provided security through dowry system
            6. …however…did allow women limited education
               1. Children honor father and mother
         8. “golden rule” – “Never do to others what you would not like them to do to you”
         9. Honorable behavior – etiquette, grace, virtue, courtesy – li
            1. Regardless of class, practice li and you are “gentlemanly”
            2. Higher status expected to show – jen/ren – sympathy – “human heartedness”
            3. “xiao” filial piety – respect/obligation for extended family
         10. Focus on creation of junzi – superior individuals – educated, conscientious, state more important than ambition
         11. Political system isn’t as important as good people
      4. Spread
         1. Compatible with other religions – philosophy
         2. Religions embraced
         3. Gov’t embraced – led to order
         4. Spread primarily though Chinese culture
         5. Communities become tight-knit
            1. Members have duties to community from birth
      5. Impact on Society
         1. By 1000 CE coexisted with, competed with, gained, lost, regained status
         2. Neo-Confucianism – 600 CE
         3. Even when not in official favor – still very influential
         4. China’s traditional emphasis on
            1. Filial piety
            2. social hierarchy
            3. respect for authority
               1. Persisted even under Communist regime
      6. Confucius – trying to confront problems of the time
      7. Ethical philosophy
         1. Emphasized proper/harmonious relationships
         2. Respect for one’s elders/authority
         3. Relationship between ruler/people
      8. Decline during Three Kingdoms era due to Taoism/Buddhism
   5. Legalism
      1. Chinese – Qin Dynasty – most notable practitioners
      2. Peace and order only through centralized/tightly governed state
      3. People made to obey through harsh punishment, strong central government, unquestioned authority
      4. Focused on practical/benefits for society
      5. Two most worthy professions – military/farming
      6. Effective for organization
         1. Great Wall – mass projects build quickly
         2. Caused resentment among common people
            1. Led to wider acceptance of Daoism/Confucianism
      7. Differences from Confucianism
         1. Confucianism – fundamental goodness of people vs. fundamentally evil
         2. Confucianism – corresponding responsibilities vs. strict laws/harsh punishments
         3. Both social belief systems to lead to orderly society
   6. Daoism
      1. Overview
         1. Appeared around 500 BCE – more philosophy than religion
         2. Founding father no claim to divinity – like Buddhism initially
         3. way of nature, way of the cosmos
      2. Founding
         1. Lao Tzu (604 BCE) – trying to confront problems of the time
            1. “Old Master”
            2. May or may not be actual historical figure
            3. Said to have written Tao-te Ching
               1. most scholars believe written 300/200 BCE
         2. Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu)
         3. In response to Era of Warring States
      3. Following Dao
         1. Follow “the way” “the path” – “Book of the Way”
            1. accomplishes everything, but does nothing
            2. Pot on the potter’s wheel
               1. Opening is nothing
               2. Pot would not be a pot without it
               3. Water – soft and yielding, wears away rock
                  1. Humans should be passive, yielding to Dao
         2. Metaphysical and instinctual
            1. Universe governed by natural force/invisible yet irresistible
               1. divine yet impersonal
         3. Ambition/activism only bring chaos to world
            1. wuwei – disengagement from world affairs
               1. simple life in harmony with nature
         4. But…Daoist priests sometimes use magic to influence the spirits
         5. Can not be understood intellectually, but felt/sensed intuitively
         6. Deliberately antirational – parables/paradox to train worshiper to look at world in nonlogical ways
         7. Attains wisdom and happiness by seeking dao
            1. Not concerned with worldly things – politics, money, worldly poss.
               1. All illusory and meaningless
            2. Dao found in nature, poetry, spontaneous behavior
            3. Don’t resist Dao, but realize you have no control over material world
            4. Individualism – every person pursues Dao in own way
         8. Promoted scientific discovery
            1. Harmony with nature
               1. Great astronomers, chemists, botanists
         9. Daoist Ritual
            1. Associated with mystical/magical practices – blend of folk religions
               1. Charm making
               2. Alchemy
               3. Fortune telling
               4. I-Ching “Book of Changes” – daoist text
                  1. reading the future
            2. Yin-yang – most famous symbol
               1. nothing is absolute, even opposites flow into each other
               2. Male assertiveness, female submissiveness
            3. Most flexible of the world’s major religions
               1. Traditionally coexisted with other faiths
               2. Not uncommon to blend with Buddhism and Confucianism
         10. Governmental recognition
             1. Coexisted – added to uniqueness of China
             2. Confucianism and Daoism closely linked, but sometimes uncomfortable
                1. Opposed to each other
         11. Spread
             1. Spread throughout China
             2. Small, self-sufficient communities – counterbalances to Confucian activism
             3. Spread to areas where China had strong cultural influence –
         12. Differences from Confucianism
             1. helping people live in harmony/internal peace not orderly society
             2. simple, passive existence, little gov’t interference not orderly government
                1. In time, natural balance of universe would resolve problems
             3. Confucianism used for relationships and Daoism for private meditations
                1. Blended later – responsibility for community & personal reflection
         13. Political reform – precepts metaphysical
             1. The way “Tao” should be followed
             2. Seek union with natural order of universe
             3. Blend of Chinese folk religion and Lao Tzu’s teachings
   7. Buddhism
      1. Overview
         1. Originated in India
         2. Similar to Judaism, Hinduism
            1. All are tied to culture, not evangelical movement trying to change civilizations
         3. Forms and denominations spread worldwide
         4. Challenge to social hierarchy of India
            1. Against Brhamins
            2. No caste system
            3. Appeals to lower rank
         5. Two main schools of thought:
            1. Theravada/Hinayana
            2. Mahayana
         6. Foundations go to one person, but…
            1. variety of beliefs, gods, theologies is staggering
      2. History
         1. One of several religious movements in 500 BCE
            1. Transition from Vedism to Hinduism created debate/controversy
            2. Many philosophers experimented with how to reach World Soul
               1. Jainism – Mahavira – 540-468 BCE
                  1. Nonviolence
                  2. Asceticism
         2. Siddhartha Gautama
            1. Noble family in northern India
            2. 29 yrs old, goes outside, sees pain/poverty of common people
            3. Abandons life to seek answer to suffering
               1. “holy” seeker – meditated, practiced yoga
            4. Born to one spiritual extreme – sensuality/obsession w/ worldly
               1. Chose fasting/ascetism
                  1. After 6 years realized it’s not working
                  2. Follow “middle way” of moderation, peace, contentment
            5. Following middle way – achieved enlightenment under bodhi tree
               1. took name Buddha – “enlightened one”
               2. Began preaching what he learned – 45 years
            6. Sangha – monks, nuns from every caste
               1. Goal – emulate Buddha – follow the path
      3. Buddhist Doctrine
         1. Early form – less a religion than a philosophy
            1. no claim to divinity or godhood
            2. wanted to correct worst features of Vedism and Hinduism
               1. modify doctrine
               2. purify concepts of karma/reincarnation
                  1. take out rituals, ceremonies, brahmins
               3. Thoughts all related to Hinduism – reaction or drawn from
            3. Samsara – wheel of life, death, and reincarnation
            4. Rejected caste system
               1. Rejected idea that only Brahmin could be freed from samsara
               2. Any person could achieve liberation
               3. Realize Four Noble Truths and Follow Eightfold Path
            5. Four Noble Truths
               1. Human existence is inseparable from suffering
               2. The cause of suffering is desire.
               3. Suffering is extinguished by extinguishing desire
               4. desire may be extinguished by following the Eightfold Path
            6. Eightfold Path
               1. Know the truth
               2. Resist evil
               3. Do nothing to hurt others
               4. Respect all forms of life
               5. Work for the well-being of others before that of yourself.
               6. Free your mind of evil
               7. Control your thoughts
               8. Practice meditation
            7. Five Moral Rules
               1. Do not kill any living being
               2. Do not take what is not given to you
               3. Do not speak falsely
               4. Do not drink intoxicating drinks
               5. Do not be unchaste
            8. By following these, anyone can reach enlightenment
               1. Free himself from samsara > nirvana “extinguish”
               2. Goal not union of individual soul with World Soul
                  1. Nirvana leads to state of superconsciousness
                  2. Dissolved into the life spirit that transcends place/time
      4. Spread through Asia
         1. After death, 483 BCE
            1. Spread through Asia
            2. Split into various denominations
               1. Theravada Buddhism
                  1. “Way of the Elders”
                  2. Hinayana “Lesser Vehicle” Buddhism
                  3. South and Southeast Asia
                  4. Closer to spirit of Buddha’s original teachings
                     1. simplicity
                     2. Meditation
                     3. Nirvana – renunciation of self/consciousness
                  5. Gods/goddesses little place
                     1. Buddha not a deity
               2. Mahayana Buddhism
                  1. “Greater Vehicle”
                  2. More elaborate, more complicated
                     1. More ritual and symbology
                     2. Buddhism blended w/ indigenous religions
                     3. Original gives little spiritual comfort
                     4. Gods/goddesses
                        1. Buddha became a god
                        2. Veneration of gods key
                        3. Not just meditation
                     5. Brings up new methods of salvation
                        1. Resembles heaven
                        2. Not suppression of self
                        3. Concepts of hell/punishment
                  3. Prayed to bodhisattvas
                     1. Souls who had achieved nirvana
                     2. Remained in human form to help others
                  4. Needs priests/scriptures
                  5. Irony – many additions like the elements of Hinduism Buddha was trying to get rid of
                  6. North and northeastern Asia
                     1. Japan, Korea, Tibet, parts of China
         2. Why did it spread?
            1. Acceptance of men and women from all ranks of society
            2. Monks and nuns who set up religious communities
               1. Located along trade routes – lodging for traders
               2. Merchants carried doctrines along Silk Roads
               3. Gained popularity under Ashoka Mauryan
            3. Always fighting against Hindu Brahmins
               1. Later Gupta emperors
            4. Blended with Confucianism in China – stressed patriarchal families
            5. Belief of bodhisattvas – ordinary people reach nirvana through meditation
         3. Gained popularity under Ashoka
            1. Missionaries around Asia
            2. Brahmins threatened – once dead – pushed out Buddhists
   8. Christianity