Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era
- Political revolutions and independence movements
- Major political revolutions
- Centralized monarchies the norm, but there’s a variety
- Constitutional limits in Great Britain
- Total autocracy in France
- Standard method of ruling
- Absolute monarch with aristocrats that control land, wealth, political influence
- Common strands in modern revolutions
- influence of the intellectual movements and ideas
- democratic principles of the Enlightenment
- Marxist principles that underlie Communism
- Importance of peasants and urban workers as actors in revolutions
- shift to authoritarian rule in movements that began as democratic uprisings
- influence of the intellectual movements and ideas
- Major themes
- Enlightenment philosophies that education and reason could improve society
- Spurned revolutions in N. America, France, Haiti
- Latin American independence movements flourished first part of 19th century
- Turn of the century – early 20th – Chinese dynastic rule ends
- Enlightenment philosophies that education and reason could improve society
- United States
- Causes/Impetus
- Frustrating mercantile policy of Great Britain
- Drove American nuts – OK when they weren’t enforced, but…
- Common theme in revolutions – frustration with economic exploitation
- Dependent status of colonies symbolized by “no taxation without representation”
- Enlightenment ideas
- Inspired the revolution itself
- John Locke – social contract
- People gave rights in exchange for gov’t maintaining order
- People could overthrow gov’t if they don’t
- John Locke – social contract
- Inspired the type of government that was created after it succeeded
- Inspired the revolution itself
- Debt from Seven Years War – French and Indian War
- Changed the boundaries of two empire’s worldwide possessions
- Felt Americans should share in costs of war
- Frustration with “taxation without representation”
- Restrictions after Seven Years War
- Couldn’t migrate to Appalachian territories
- Brits couldn’t protect Americans w/ Native Americans
- Couldn’t migrate to Appalachian territories
- Frustrating mercantile policy of Great Britain
- Stages
- Noncompliance with British laws
- Reprisals by the British
- Protests: boycotts, violence, letters and declarations to the British crown
- Famous pamphlet – Common Sense – Thomas Paine
- Before – most colonists apathetic – British sympathy
- Or…Britain too strong to defeat
- Said monarchy takes away from American’s natural rights
- Printing press became powerful tool
- Before – most colonists apathetic – British sympathy
- Famous pamphlet – Common Sense – Thomas Paine
- Cycle of escalating protests and reprisals
- Boston Harbor – terrorism > British troops stationed in Boston
- Conflict at Lexington and Concord
- Declaration of Independence – 1776
- War
- Alliances with Britain’s enemies
- France more than happy to help out
- 1777 French committed ships, soldiers, weapons and money
- 1781 French and British troops cornered Cornwallis
- France more than happy to help out
- Defeat of the British forces
- Peace Treaty, 1783
- Outcome/Effects
- Establishment of the United States of America in 1776
- Recognition by other nations and finally the British
- Loss of territory and revenues by the British
- Causes/Impetus
- France
- Causes/Impetus
- Long-term effects of rule by absolute monarchy
- Policies of Louix XVI
- National debt and financial collapse
- Living in lavish luxury at Versailles
- France’s war debts
- Droughts damaging French harvests
- Spending of Marie Antoinette
- Catalysts
- Inflation, unemployment, poor harvests, food shortages
- Nobility scoff at spending restrictions
- Louis XVI needed to raise taxes
- Unfair tax system – wealthy First/Second Estates exempt
- Privileges accorded the nobility; abuses
- Wide social and economic gap between ordinary citizens and the country’s elite
- Second Estate – 2% of opulation
- Privileges accorded the Roman Catholic Church; abuses
- First Estate – 1% of population
- Rise of the bourgeoisie; rivalry for power with nobles and Church
- Frustrated middle class – possessed wealth and education
- Seen as equals to the peasants of the Third Estate
- Conditions of peasants; series of poor harvests
- Conditions of urban workers; sans culottes
- Enlightenment ideas; philosophers
- Many of whom were French
- Made powerful arguments in favor of
- Fair government
- Equal treatment of all citizens
- Separation of governmental powers
- Civil rights
- 11. Example of the American revolution
- Stages
- Four stages
- Aristocrats challenge king
- Louis XVI calls Estates General – hadn’t met in 175 years
- Bourbon monarchs ruled through divine right
- Louis XVI calls Estates General – hadn’t met in 175 years
- Bourgeoisie challenge voting process in Estates-General
- Three Estates – clergy, nobility, everybody else
- Third Estate wants sweeping changes that would hurt others
- Other two outvote 2-1
- Third Estate declared themselves National Assembly
- Tennis Court Oath
- Demanded a Constitution – not just change
- King pressures other two to join National Assembly
- Popular revolution, the people in the cities, Paris especially support bourgeoisie
- Storming the Bastille – July 14, 1789 starts wave of revolution
- Found out Louis XVI actually summoned troops
- Sans-culottes radicals utilized for muscle
- Storming the Bastille – July 14, 1789 starts wave of revolution
- Peasants in the countryside support the revolution in Paris
- Peasants attack nobility and clergy
- Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette brought to Paris for “safety”
- Aristocrats challenge king
- French Republic: National Convention
- Adopt Declaration of the Rights of Man
- Natural rights based on the Enlightenment, English Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence
- “liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression”
- Guaranteed freedoms of the press/religion – increased voting rights
- These ideas swept across Europe – encouraging other revolts
- Freedom, equality, rule of law
- Abolished the feudal system
- Altered the monopoly of the Catholic Church
- Freedom of worship
- 1791 – Constitutional monarchy
- Angers those who want to get rid of king
- ii. Angers those who want to preserve feudal system
- Austria (Marie Antoinette’s home country)/Prussia invade to restore monarchy
- New constitution – Jacobins, National Assembly replace king > republic
- Reign of Terror
- Afraid of foreign threats (Britain and Spain join)
- Afraid of domestic chaos
- Committee of Public Safety – all powerful enforcer of revolution
- Beheading tens of thousands of Frenchmen
- Went too far, leader Robespierre eventually beheaded
- Universal male suffrage - precedent
- Universal military conscription - precedent
- Afraid of foreign threats (Britain and Spain join)
- Adopt Declaration of the Rights of Man
- Directory
- Five man government – 1795
- Weak at dealing with domestic problems
- Good at building up military
- Great strategy – focus on issues abroad – take mind off of domestic problems
- Unsolved problems
- Continuing war with Great Britain, Austria
- Corrupt politicians
- Bread riots
- Anger over policies related to the Church
- Growing royalist support
- Cycle of revolution
- Initially – liberal nobility + wealthy middle class
- This doesn’t go far enough – radical representatives of poor take over
- This is too radical – end up moving to middle – conservative backlash
- People want the good ol’ days – go back to an autocrat
- Four stages
- Outcome/effects
- National Assembly – Moderate Phase – 1789-1792
- Formal abolition of feudalism
- Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen
- Revocation of privileges of the Roman Catholic Church
- Reorganization of the Church under the state
- Set up limited monarchy – Louis XVI sat on throne, but power to assembly
- Didn’t go far enough
- Rights not extended to Jews, Protestants, blacks
- Not extended to women
- Major role as intellectuals, organizers, workers of Revolt
- National Convention – Legislative Assembly – Radical Phase – 1792-1794
- Abolished the monarchy and the aristocracy
- As protection from foreign threat
- Attack from Austria/German states
- Emigres plotting return of throne
- Royal family even plotted with nobles from foreign countries
- Eventually captured trying to escape France
- As protection from foreign threat
- Extended suffrage to more but not all male citizens
- People getting more ticked off
- Economy worsening
- Threat of foreign invasion
- Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Britain try to maintain monarchy – a bit nervous about precedent
- Committee of Public Safety
- Mobilized entire economy for combat
- Instituted world’s first national draft
- Reign of Terror (Jacobin Club)
- Searching for spies, traitors, counterrevolutionaries
- Civil liberties irrelevant – no due process
- Even other radical parties targeted
- 300,000 arrested – 30,000 put to death
- Abolished the monarchy and the aristocracy
- Directory – Thermidorian Reaction – 1794-1799
- Robespierre killed
- 5-man council, absolute power
- Napoleon “asked” to assume power
- 1799 overthrows Directory
- “Voted” in as First Consul by popular vote
- Creates new Constitution (4th Constitution)
- Good or bad
- Bad
- wars lasted for years, cost a ton, killed a ton
- Denied women basic rights
- Censored speech and the press
- ii. Good
- Bank of France
- Napoleonic Code – Civil Law Code – French law
- Established universities
- Granted religious freedom
- Bad
- Domestic reforms
- Agriculture, infrastructure, public education altered
- Normalized relations with the Church
- Restored tolerance of other religions
- Napoleonic Codes – equality of Frenchmen
- Paternalistic – women/children severely limited
- Recognized basic rights of men
- External impact
- Fended off aggressors and made France an aggressor
- Conquered Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Italy
- Dissolved Holy Roman Empire
- Becomes confederacy of German states
- Makes himself king of new empire
- Power undermined by nationalistic uprisings and guerilla warfare
- Defeated in Russia
- Lured into Moscow, but then city was burned
- No way to house troops, hung out to dry
- Retreat back to France turns into disaster
- Lured into Moscow, but then city was burned
- Army decimated – Napoleon exiled
- Austria, Russia and Britain unite to overthrow Napoleon again upon return
- Finally exiled to St. Helena – eventually dies
- Congress of Vienna – 1815
- Maintain balance of power in Europe – no major wars for 100 yrs
- France not punished, just returned borders to pre-Napoleon levels
- Reaffirmed absolute rule
- returned monarchs to France, Spain, Holland, Italy
- Ignored ideals, rights established during French Revolution
- Return Europe to the good ol days or autocracy
- Agree to fight liberal reforms
- Political controls actually tighten
- Limited freedom of expression, press, censorship
- More secret police forces
- Very conservative
- Peace could be secured if equilibrium of geography/military kept
- Austrian Klemens von Metternich’s Congress System
- Concert of Europe
- Austrian Klemens von Metternich’s Congress System
- Impact of French Revolution
- Didn’t the Revolution fail?
- Dream of popular government faded – Comm Pub Safety
- Napoleon a dictator
- Old royal family actually restored to power
- Dream of popular government faded – Comm Pub Safety
- But…
- It did do away with absolute monarchy
- monarchs still sat on thrones – no longer all-powerful
- Yield to ministers, parliaments, assemblies
- Gov’ts had to be more attentive to people’s needs
- Starts trend of greater popular representation
- Can no longer ignore the voices of the people
- Spread the ideals of the revolution outside France
- Thanks to Napoleon
- Creates spirit of nationalism throughout Europe
- Reaction to Napoleon’s invasion
- Didn’t the Revolution fail?
- Aftermath of Napoleonic Wars
- Spirit of conservatism following 1815 defeat of Napoleon
- Restore monarchs
- Maintain balance of power to prevent future conflicts
- Liberalism
- Protect the rights of the properties class
- Radicalism
- Broader suffrage and social reforms for the lower class
- Nationalism unites Italy and Germany
- Spirit of conservatism following 1815 defeat of Napoleon
- National Assembly – Moderate Phase – 1789-1792
- Comparing American and French Revolutions
- US – colonial uprising against imperial power – independence movement
- French Revolution – more of a revolution
- Actually want to change political/economic system
- Not merely a transfer of power from one elite group to another
- Social-political structure radically changes
- For US/Britain – structure remains essentially the same
- But US a revolution – set precedent for colonies breaking away from empires
- First to break away since Age of Exploration – 300 years
- Ideas adopted in Declaration of Independence, Constitution and French Revolution borrowed around the world
- Politics in Europe – 1815-1848
- Great Britain
- History of parliamentary system
- Slow progress toward liberties
- Less than 5% actually participated in parliament
- Lower classes lobby for more powers
- Govt gradually gives in to demands to avoid rebellion
- France
- Unlike Britain’s gradual reforms, France has a few mini-revolutions
- Louis XVI family returns – parliamentary monarchy
- Replaced by “Citizen King” – but still didn’t go far enough
- Leads to revolution of 1848
- Central and Eastern Europe
- Remained more oppressive
- Prussia remained militaristic and authoritarian for years
- Though technically emperor shared power with legislature
- Russia – tsar continued to be all-powerful
- Serfdom kept people down – inefficient and kept economy back
- Great Britain
- Revolution of 1848
- Massive disturbance that shook every country of Europe
- Underlying causes
- Impatience with over three decades of reactionary (conservative) rule
- Social and economic negative effects of Industrial Revolution
- Growth and strength of nationalism
- Long series of economic downturns and bad harvests – “Hungry Forties”
- Irish Potato Famine – best-known, most deadly
- Events
- France – Citizen King Louis Philippe refuses reform demands
- Revolts result – Napoleon’s nephew – Louis Napoleon – takes over
- Metternich – “Everytime France sneezed, Europe caught cold”
- Ideas spread to rest of Europe
- Only Britain (liberal) and Russia (ultra autocratic) weren’t effected
- Revolution broke out lasting months
- Eventually all revolutions crushed or faded away
- France – Citizen King Louis Philippe refuses reform demands
- Effects
- Forced king of Prussia, emperor of Austria to grant constitutional reforms
- Demonstrated power of nationalism
- Laid the groundwork for unification of Germany and Italy
- Political, social and economic issues of people HAVE to be met
- Causes/Impetus
- Haiti
- Impetus/Causes
- Appeal of Enlightenment ideals to creoles and mulattoes
- French Revolution as inspiration to slaves
- Success of American Revolution – maybe timing was right
- Revolts/uprisings before, but they always failed
- Now…Europe in chaos with rise and fall of Napoleon - distracted
- Rebellious leaders opportunity to assert themselves
- French mercantilist policy
- exported coffee, sugar, cocoa, indigo from Haiti
- few large plantations with hundreds of thousands of slaves
- By 1800, 90% of population slave
- Stages
- Slave insurrection of 1791
- Toussaint L’Ouverture – former slave
- Britain and Spain send troops; slaves and French join to oust them
- At the end of civil war, slaves freed and in power; still a French colony
- 1802, troops under Napoleon sent to end rule of former slaves
- Defeat of the French by rebels and disease
- Haitians capable fighters
- Yellow fever wipes out soldiers
- L’Ouverture captured and imprisoned in France
- Napoleon gives up attempt to reconquer Haiti
- Slave insurrection of 1791
- Outcome
- Independence declared in 1804
- Jacques Dessalines – also slave – governor-general for life
- Haiti first independent nation in Latin America
- Civil war among rival factions
- Independent republic established in 1820
- Independence declared in 1804
- Long term effects
- Napoleon chose to abandon effort to maintain French colonies in North America
- Sold vast Louisiana Territory to US for bargain
- Gave US control of the N. American continent
- Brought about major shift in global power – enter US
- Impetus/Causes
- Latin American Wars of Independence
- Causes
- Growing sense of national identity – same as US
- Local resentment of Spanish/Portuguese economic policies – same as US
- Frustration of American born Creole upper and middle class
- Would never be seen as equal to European born rulers
- Spark/catalyst was Napoleon
- Confusion over who was ruling
- Perfect opportunity to take advantage
- Political difficulties of 19th century Latin America
- Freedom alone did not bring about good government, social justice, health economy
- Political breakdown – instead of a few states, many independent smaller states
- Failure of constitutional rule
- Based on Napoleonic Law, US and French revolutions
- But…imposed artificially on Latin America
- Because there was no tradition of constitutions, civil liberties, political right
- It all just became words…red alert – consider connection to Iraq
- Prevalence of dictatorial/military rule
- Caudillos – military/political strongmen
- personal charisma, military force and/or oppression
- Reformers and liberals try to change, but doesn’t happen
- Caudillos – military/political strongmen
- Economic backwardness
- Hundreds of years of shaping toward merely extracting natural resources
- Emphasized monoculture – one major crop – or a few crops
- Created condition that required importing finished goods
- Required large reserves of slaves/cheap labor to survive
- Failure to diversify economies means plantation owners need to recreate conditions to turn a profit
- Slow to modernize/industrialize
- Social and Racial Divisions
- Social inequality persisted regardless of laws
- People of mixed race, Indians, blacks victims of informal prejudice
- Economic income gap only worsened in 1800s
- Slavery even continued into 1800s in Brazil and Cuba
- Huge foreign influence persisted
- United States sets up sphere of influence
- Europeans either install or influence who will be leader
- Causes
- Mexico (Revolution #1) – 1810>1820
- Impetus/Causes
- Revolution in Haiti
- Distraction of Spain by its war with France
- Stages
- El Grito de Dolores! Call to arms by priest
- Miguel Hidalgo – Creole priest – sympathized with Spanish abused
- led mestizos and Native Americans in rebellion in 1810
- Easily put down by Spanish – revolt – Hidalgo killed
- Fighting continued under new leader, killed in 1815; some scattered fighting
- Jose Morelos – picked up where Hidalgo left off
- Fought the loyalists
- Landowners turned against when he claimed redistributing land
- 1815 Morelos executed
- 1821 conservative creole joins with rebels and declares Mexico independent empire
- 1823 emperor overthrown by liberals
- 1824 republic created
- El Grito de Dolores! Call to arms by priest
- Outcome/Effects
- First rebellions demanded reforms such as abolition of slavery
- Lack of support from creoles for insurrection; collapsed
- Under republic, after years of turmoil, little change for ordinary mestizos/Natives
- French occupation
- Reforms instituted under Benito Juares
- Impetus/Causes
- Mexico (Revolution #2) – 1910-1917
- Impetus/Causes
- Long dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz
- Unequal distribution of wealth: a few wealthy landowners and mass of desperately poor peasants, factory workers, miners
- Liberal reformers
- Stages
- Demand for free elections; Diaz resigns
- Succeeded by Francisco Madero as president; murdered after two years
- Civil War: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata
- 1917 election – Venustiano Carranza as president
- Outcome/effects
- Constitution of 1917 still in effect
- Broke up large landholdings
- Nationalized ownership of natural resources and Church property
- Restricted religion
- Provided for minimum wage
- Extended suffrage to all males
- Constitution of 1917 still in effect
- Impetus/Causes
- China
- Impetus/Causes
- Increasing power of foreign nations
- Defeat in Sino-Japanese war in 1895
- Spread of reform ideas among Western-educated Chinese
- Discontent of poor rural peasants
- Grant of power to provincial governments by Qing in an effort to stem uprisings
- Stages
- Abortive rebellions in late 1800s
- Leadership of Dowager Empress Cixi
- Concubine that “ruled” for nephew into adulthood
- More oppressive rule
- Opposed all reform – pro-Western treason
- Even arrested nephew/killed reformers when they tried “Hundred Days Reform”
- Outlying possessions slipped away – Tibet, Gobi Desert, Mongolia
- Chinese Revolution of 1911
- Provincial secessions
- Declaration of republic
- Empire under Yuan shih-K’ai
- Years of civil war and chaos
- Establishment of republic in 1927 under Nationalist/Kuomintang Party
- Outcome/effects
- Abdication of Qing (Manchu) emperor in 1912
- Yuan declares self emperor – dies in 1916
- Warlords in power across China
- Unification of much of China begun under Sun Yat-sen
- Sun Yat-sen – father of modern China
- United a number of opposition groups – Revolutionary Alliance
- Military takeover that would become constitutional democracy
- People’s Principles
- Nationalism – opposition to Manchu Rule
- Democracy
- People’s Livelihood
- Actually in America when revolt started
- Chinese Republic – 1912 – Sun as president
- Nationalist Party – Kuomintang
- 1st time in history ruled not by imperial dynasty/foreign conqueror
- Politician brought to power by popular action
- Sun eventually forced to step down
- Civil war results
- Aided by Soviets
- Sun Yat-sen – father of modern China
- Chiang Kai-shek successor to Sun
- Leads nationalist republic
- Fight for control of China with Communists under Mao Zedong
- Impetus/Causes
- Latin America
- Venezuela
- Cause
- Disputed authority – Napoleon appoints brother Joseph Bonaparte to Spanish throne
- Who to follow – Spanish or French?
- Disputed authority – Napoleon appoints brother Joseph Bonaparte to Spanish throne
- Events
- Simon Bolivar – Venezuelan leader
- Enlightened educated – traveled to Europe/United States
- Establishes national congress
- Royalists – defenders of crown – declare war
- Bolivar wins – envisions United States like South America
- Gran Colombia results – Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela
- Other nations become independendent
- Simon Bolivar – Venezuelan leader
- Cause
- Argentina
- Cause
- Disputed authority – see French/Spanish issue above
- Events
- Jose de San Martin – American-born Spaniard (Creole)
- Officer in Spanish army defects and leads rebels
- Joins with Bernardo O’Higgins of Chile
- Take revolution through Argentina, Chile, Peru
- By 1820s, huge chunk of South America freed from Spanish rule
- Jose de San Martin – American-born Spaniard (Creole)
- Cause
- Brazil
- Cause
- Napoleon invaded – Portuguese king – John VI flees to Brazil
- Sets up Portuguese government from Brazil
- 1821 – Napoleon defeated, so John returns to Portugal
- But…leaves behind his son Pedro to rule
- Napoleon invaded – Portuguese king – John VI flees to Brazil
- Events
- Pedro was 23, spend entire life in Brazil
- Declares independence for Brazil and makes himself emperor
- 1831 Pedro gives power to sequel Pedro II – rules most of 19th century
- So…Brazil had early advantage of stable monarchy/gov’t through independence
- Accomplishments
- Abolished slavery in 1888
- Angers landowning class – they revolt in 1889
- Set up a republic
- Major exporter of coffee
- Abolished slavery in 1888
- Cause
- Effects of Latin American independence movements
- Europe booted out of vast chunks of American continents during 50 year period
- But…independence not accompanied by widespread freedom
- Slavery still existed for decades
- Peasants still worked on huge plantations owned by few landowners
- Middle class/merchant class didn’t emerge
- Enlightenment ideas didn’t spread beyond landowning class
- Why weren’t changes in South America?
- Catholic Church remained very powerful in Latin America
- Many priests fought for peasants, some martyred selves
- But…Church hierarchy wanted to maintain status quo
- Church – one of largest landowners in Latin America
- Economies largely dependent on Europe
- Still participated in European mercantilism
- Specialized in a few cash crops
- Didn’t diversify – similar to US South
- Exported almost exclusively to Europe
- Catholic Church remained very powerful in Latin America
- Exceptions
- Chile diversified economy fairly successfully
- Brazil and Argentina had some social reforms/broadened economies
- Middle class results
- Venezuela
- Russia
- Keeps control over vast territory by giving absolute power to czars
- Majority of people serfs with no rights
- Alexander I and Nicholas I used secret police to squash rebellions/reform
- Reforms
- 1860s Alexander II – Emancipation Edict – abolish serfdom
- Serfs given small plots of land
- Had to give huge payments to the government
- Difficult to improve situation
- Some move to cities to work in industries – harsh conditions
- Serfs given small plots of land
- Beginning of some arts flourish
- Tolstoy – Anna Karenina and War and Peace
- Dostoyevsky – The Brothers Karamazov
- Tchaikovsky – Swan Lake and Nutcracker
- Russification – all Russians had to learn Russian language/convert to Orthodoxy
- Anyone who didn’t comply was persecuted – especially Jews
- Nicholas II doesn’t react to revolution
- Socialists began to organize
- Tried to rally Russians around the flag, but humiliated against Japanese
- Moderates march on czar’s palace peacefully – ask for reform
- Czar sends his troops against protesters – Bloody Sunday – 1905
- In response, Czar attempts legislative reforms
- Appoints Prime Minister – Peter Stolypin
- Creates Duma
- Has no real power
- Everytime they’re about to make a change, czar disbands
- 1860s Alexander II – Emancipation Edict – abolish serfdom
- Keeps control over vast territory by giving absolute power to czars
- India
- Educating native elite backfired
- Larger numbers of these educated agitated for freedom
- Saw that it was hypocritical for British not to apply liberties to India
- Indian National Congress – 1885
- English speaking, educated members of upper class
- Most influential – Mohandas K. Gandhi – 1869
- Lived in S. Africa from 1893-1915
- Defended rights of Indian workers living under apartheid
- Returned to India as central figure in freedom movement
- Policy of nonviolent resistance
- Lived in S. Africa from 1893-1915
- Educating native elite backfired
- Centralized monarchies the norm, but there’s a variety
- Major independence movements
- Latin American independence movements
- Mexico’s revolution unique
- Revolution of mestizos and Native Americans
- Other Latin American revolutions
- Led by wealthy, educated creoles
- Newly independent nations replaced governing peninsulares with elite creoles
- Little changed for the majority of the people
- Mestizos
- Mulattoes
- Native Americans
- Causes/Impetus
- Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin
- creoles both familiar with Enlightenment writings
- Spain engaged in wars with Napoleon
- Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin
- Stages
- Between 1808>1824 all Spanish colonies became independent nations
- Outcome/Effects
- Bitter rivalries for power led to civil wars and more turmoil and suffering
- Little social, political, economic reform accomplished in former Spanish colonies
- Legacy of caudillo, strong man/military ruler, as head of government
- Mexico’s revolution unique
- Latin American independence movements
- New political ideas
- Rise of nationalism
- Consequences of Napoleonic era was intensified nationalism
- Feelings of connection to one’s own home, region, language, culture
- Consequences of Napoleonic era was intensified nationalism
- Marxism
- Liberalism
- Conservatism
- Anarchism
- Rise of nation-states
- Unifications
- Italy and Germany were still feudal
- Center of warfare among the European powers
- Italy and Germany eventually unify which changes balance of power
- Italy
- Status before unification
- Mid-19th century – tangle of foreign controlled small kingdoms
- Austria has North
- France has Rome and Papal States
- Spain has two Sicilies in the South
- Only Sardinia controlled by Italians
- Mid-19th century – tangle of foreign controlled small kingdoms
- Events toward unification
- Victor Emmanuel II – king of Sardinia + Count Camillo Cavour
- Both Sardinians push nationalism
- First Cavour sides with Europeans to kick out Austrians
- Giuseppi Garibaldi – Italian nationalist kicks out Spain
- By 1861 most of Spain unified under Victor Emmanuel
- Sided with Prussia to push out Austria
- France withdraws in 1870
- Victor Emmanuel II – king of Sardinia + Count Camillo Cavour
- Effects
- Some still upset that parts of Austria and France aren’t Italian too
- Tough to unify culturally since it had developed regionally
- But…now able to assert itself on the world stage
- Impacts Europe in the next century
- Status before unification
- Germany
- Status before unification
- German and Austrian Empire provinces not united since Holy Roman Empire
- After Peace of Westphalia – Austria/Prussia dominated
- Prussia under Frederick the Great pushed Industrial Revolution
- Supported education – talented workforce
- German and Austrian Empire provinces not united since Holy Roman Empire
- Events toward unification
- William I in 1861 appoints Otto von Bismarck prime minister
- Goal – build the military
- Consolidating the region under Prussia’s authority
- Defeated Austria, convinced Europe to not help
- More wars to bring in other German regions
- Brings in Catholic German states through war
- Unite against France in 1870
- King William II then emperor of the German Empire
- Second Reich – “second empire”
- First Reich – “Holy Roman Empire”
- William I in 1861 appoints Otto von Bismarck prime minister
- Effects
- Germany quickly industrializes
- Strong economic/political power
- William II forced Bismarck to give up role
- Becomes undisputed emperor in 1888
- Built huge navy
- Pursued colonial ambitions in Africa and Asia
- Germany becomes world power
- By 1914, thought they could take on anyone
- Germany quickly industrializes
- Status before unification
- Italy and Germany were still feudal
- Unifications
- Movements of political reform
- Gradual Move Toward Representative Government
- 2nd half of century moved toward representative govt
- Why?
- Industrialization, modernization, urbanization, population growth
- Too many issues for one man to handle
- Industrialization, modernization, urbanization, population growth
- Even in less democratic nations, power still spread to advisers, agencies, ministries and institutions
- Reform and Democracy in Great Britain
- Liberal and Conservative parties agreed to expand suffrage
- Second and Third Reform Acts – 1867/1885 – universal suffrage
- Problems still existed
- Aristocracy trying to retain privileges
- Growing middle class has ambitions of higher status
- Enormous working class striving for equality
- Labour Party ends up replacing liberal (middle class) party
- Irish home rule
- Should North – split Catholic/Protestant remain British or Irish
- Should Ireland be set free
- Liberal and Conservative parties agreed to expand suffrage
- Democracy in France
- Louis Napoleon renamed himself Napoleon III
- Cancelled out some of the post-1848 liberties
- Deposed after losing Franco-Prussian war of 1871
- 1871 onward – France becomes democratic republic – universal suffrage
- Fourth Republic
- Still had problems
- Corruption and financial scandal
- Dreyfus Affair – Jewish officer accused of selling secrets to Germ
- Exposed anti-Semitism
- Pitted left vs. right – innocent vs. guilty
- Louis Napoleon renamed himself Napoleon III
- Unification of Italy and Germany
- Showed power of nationalism – more powerful than demand for democracy
- Unified through combination of war and diplomatic intrigue/maneuvering
- Garibaldi – Italy
- Von Bismarck - Germany
- Austria-Hungary
- More conservative, but moved away from autocracy
- 1861 Emperor Franz Josef shared power with parliament
- Struggled on how much power to give to ethnic minorities
- Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Italians, Hungarians
- Minorities want autonomy – self-determination
- 1867 – Largest minority forced Austrians to give power
- Augsleich – “compromise” – becomes Austria-Hungary
- Germany
- Had to make concessions to growing working class
- Trade unions and socialism growing in power/influence
- Universal suffrage for Reichstag
- But…upper class votes weighed more than lower-class votes
- Laws for employment benefits
- unemployment insurance
- disability insurance
- pensions
- shorter work day
- Some workers actually better off than western world
- Had to make concessions to growing working class
- Russia
- Remained most autocratic
- No constitution, and until 1905 – no elected body
- Following embarrassing defeat in Crimean War – 1853-856
- Tsar Alexander II forced to implement liberal reforms
- Modernize Russia
- Emancipation of serfs in 1861
- Lightened censorship
- Widened powers of local government
- 1881 – Alexander II assassinated by radical terrorists
- Future tsars reversed policies
- Tsar Alexander II forced to implement liberal reforms
- 1905 – Uprising forces Nicholas II to share power with Duma
- But…Nicholas II ignored or disbanded Duma – neutered
- Japan
- Tokugawa Shogunate in the 18th century
- Ruled by Tokugawa clan – seized control in 1600s
- Technically authority with emperor, reality with shogunate
- Top of society – samurai – warrior class
- Early successes
- Helped centralize Japan
- Transformed from warring collection of states to peaceful country
- Problems
- Highly dictatorial
- Stratified society with no chance for social mobility
- Few personal freedoms – people left out of politics
- Isolated self from rest of the world
- Only relations with Korea, some China, Dutch – Nagasaki
- Meiji Restoration
- Meiji Restoration of 1868 began Japan’s modern age
- Irony – rebellion anti-Western in nature, but
- Must embrace West to survive/compete
- Revolution from above
- Meiji’s govt radically alters politics, economics, social
- Irony – rebellion anti-Western in nature, but
- Politics
- Abolishes feudalism
- Samurai have positions of power
- No hereditary privileges
- Stop payment to samurai
- Samurai couldn’t wear swords
- Formal law code – Civil Code of 1898 drawn up
- Constitution of 1890 – elected parliament – Diet
- Suffrage quite low – 5% - property qualifications
- Emperor still has power over Diet
- Created oligarchy – rule by Meiji and advisors
- Less restrictive, but hardly representative
- Women ignored – second class citizens
- But…had some power with new working jobs
- Regional governments now run by prefects – state appointed
- Abolishes feudalism
- Economics
- Modern efficiency – peasant #s decrease, productivity increases
- Industrialization
- Sent young members of upper class to train in W. Europe
- Engineering, economics, military
- Ministry of Industry in 1870
- State banks gave financing to growing industries
- New railroads, steamships, ports, canals built
- Zaibatsu – state sponsored huge corporations
- Encouraged private enterprise
- Sent young members of upper class to train in W. Europe
- Negatives of Industrialization
- Taxes for farmers goes up
- Working conditions for laborers goes down
- Nagasaki – temps. up to 130, shot for escaping
- Labor unions forbidden
- Social
- Rigid social hierarchy of Tokugawa ended
- Access to political positions increasingly based on merit
- Civil service exam
- Middle class power grows
- No longer negative stigma about trade and artisanship
- Negatives for lower class
- Farmers taxed heavily
- Industrial workers live/work in horrible conditions
- But…for lower class
- state funded education
- now allowed to serve in military
- population skyrocketed – 35 million 1873 > 55 in 1918
- Meiji Restoration of 1868 began Japan’s modern age
- Tokugawa Shogunate in the 18th century
- Gradual Move Toward Representative Government
- Democracy
- Rise
- Limitations
- Reform
- Women
- Women’s movements
- Founder – Mary Wolstonecraft – English writer
- A Vindication of the Rights of Women – 1792
- Equal rights – education, political, economic pursuits
- France – playwright Olympes de Gouges – argues for suffrage
- Founder – Mary Wolstonecraft – English writer
- “Women Question” – what is their sphere/role
- “cult of true womanhood”
- i. Virtues of submissiveness, piety, domesticity, modesty, femininity
- Feminists
- Women were individuals with different strengths and abilities
- Permitted to develop them without social restrictions
- “cult of true womanhood”
- Early phases of reform
- 1830s in US/Europe
- Focused on reforming family/divorce laws – own property/divorce
- Frustrated – lack of civil rights made it difficult ot argue for other causes
- slavery, temperance, improving schools, helping poor
- Jobs – teaching/nursing – women’s sphere
- Building social welfare institutions
- Providing aid to orphaned children/poor
- Next phase – mid century
- Pushed for suffrage
- Led by women of the upper class
- US suffragettes called for better working conditions/right to vote
- Took leadership roles in banning alcohol, child welfare, labor reform
- Not granted right to vote until after World War I
- Early exceptions – Norway, Finland, handful of US states in the West
- Women’s movements
- Racism
- Rise of nationalism
- Overlaps between nations and empires
- Major political revolutions