Chapter 35 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War 1933-1941

 

Major Themes

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• Despite strong desire for isolationist neutrality, the US eventually moved toward an interventionist foreign policy, culminating in its assistance to Great Britain and entry into World War II.

Major Questions

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• What events and attitudes caused the US to assume a larger role in world affairs leading up to its entry into WW II?

SEE America's Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent FOR AN EVEN BETTER OVERVIEW



There were quite a few different events and such that allowed the US to join the War. At the beginning, everyone wanted to maintain their isolationist policies. No one wanted to get involved in foreign affairs, whether it was for Britaina and France, the Allies of the previous war, or for Germany, the enemy of the previous war. However, as Czechoslovakia, Austria, Poland, and then France fell, America realized that it was only Britain standing against Germany, Russia, and Italy. No one wanted Britain to fall, so Congress passed acts that assisted Britain. Japan was showing agression towards China and sympathy with Germany, and so eventually the US felt obligated to end trade with them. Japan retaliated with an attack on Pearl Harbor. This riled the American "Fighting Spirit," and led to the USA joining the war. You could say that Pearl Harbor was the straw (more like bale of hay in this case) that broke the camel's back.

Pre-Reading

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• What are the historical roots of American neutrality and isolationism leading up to the 1930s?

Outline

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The London Conference

• The London Economic Conference (66 nations) showed how thoughtful the foreign policy of FDR was
  • The delegates wanted to organize a global attack on depression
  • Also wanted to establish rates that national currencies could be exchanged at
    • Exchange rates needed to be set in order to resume international trade
    • Essential to world trade
  • Roosevelt first agreed to send an American delegate to the conference
    • However he was unwilling to sacrifice the domestic recovery for international cooperation
    • Wanted to be able to change the American dollar in order to stabilize economy as he had been doing for the New Deal
  • Sent a message to London scolding conference for trying to establish currencies and signaled America's leave from the conference
    • The unwillingness for American involvement ended all hopes at the conference
  • The planet plunged further into depression due to this move
• This also set up international feelings of extreme nationalism
  • Made a worldwide conference even harder to establish

Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians

• FDR as well as most other Americans wanted to withdraw their funds from Asia
  • Organized labor disliked the low-wages of the Filipino workers
  • American sugar producers also wanted to get rid of Philippine competition
• Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934
  • Was concerned about the fact that freedom had been promised to the Philippines at some point
  • Provided independence to the Philippines after 12 years of economic tutelage (ended in 1946)
  • U.S. naval bases stayed however
• America was freeing itself from the Philippines rather than giving freedom to the Filipinos
  • Isolationists rejoiced
  • Japan was calculatinging that they had little to fear from an inward looking U.S. giving up its principal possession in Asia
• FDR recognized the Soviet Union in 1933
  • Anti-communists weren't happy
  • Motivated by the hope of starting trade w/ the Soviet Union and that he might be able to start friendly relations to counter-balance the possible threat from Germany and Japan

Becoming a Good Neighbor

• FDR extended his hand to being a good neighbor to Latin America
  • suggested America was contented w/ only being a regional power
• The Great Depression had cooled off interest in Latin America for economic reasons
• Tied to swing Latin America to our side by endorsing noniterventionism (at Pan-American conference in Montevido, Uruguay)
  • last marines left Haiti in 1934
  • Cuba was released from U.S. intervention in 1934
    • Guantanamo Bay remained U.S. property
  • Panama was alsom released from a tight American grip
• Mexican gov't seized American oil properties in 1938
  • investors were angered greatly and wanted armed intervntion
  • settlement reached in 1941, even though oil companies lost most of their claims in the process
• Good Neighbor policy a grand success
  • America looked on as more kind now
  • FDR was held in high esteem
    • "traveling salesman for peace"
    • was in the Inter-American Conference at Buenos Aires, Argentina

 

Secretary Hull's Reciprocal Trade Agreements

• Secretary of State Hull was associated with Good Neighborism (such as many other New Dealers) and believed in a low tariff
• The Reciprocal trade agreements Act of 1934 was designed to lift American export trade (relief and recovery)
  • Amended the Hawley-Smoot law laws
  • Roosevelt was empoweref to lower tariff rates by as much as 50%, as long as the other country would do the same
• Hull had succeded in negociating pacts with 21 countries by the end of 1939
  • US trade increased greatly
• Reversed the traditional high tariff policies that had damaged economies around the world after WWI
• There was now an American-led free-trade international economic system that greatly increased international trade

Impulses Toward Storm-Cellar Isolationism

• After 1918, Totalitarianism began to spread in Europe.
  • The Great Depression had a big part in it
    • People felt helpless and wanted some kind of cure
    • Turned to the Government and Strong Leaders
      • US turned to FDR/New Deal while Germany turned to Hitler
  • USSR started the spread with Communism
    • Joseph Stalin was dictator
  • Italy goes to Fascism
    • Benito Mussolini is leader
  • Germany becomes Nationalist
    • Adolf Hitler is dictator
• Hitler was the "Most Dangerous"
  • Born in Austria, tried to be a painter
  • Had great public speaking skills
  • Was leader of the Nazi Party
  • Hitler/Mussolini made an alliance:
    • Rome-Berlin Axis
• Japan was also dissatisfied
  • Was a "have-not" power
  • Needed more space for the population
  • Japan started building the navy, stepped out of the Naval Treaty, left conferences
• Mussolini wanted Africa
  • Attacked Ethiopia (1935)
  • Used Bombers and Tanks against the Spears and Old Guns of Ethiopians
• League of Nations was useless
  • Could have stopped Mussolini if made an oil embargo, but didn't
• America held even tighter to Isolationism
  • Didn't like dictators, but didn't want to get involved
  • Felt that by "owning" the western hemisphere, they would be safe
  • Thought that WWI was a bad idea, and weren't eager to do a repeat
  • Didn't like that some hadn't paid their war debts
    • Congress makes the Johnson Debt Default Act (1934)
      • Any nation that didn't pay its debts can't borrow from the USA again
• America didn't realize the power of the dictaors
  • The "have-nots" wanted to "have"
  • America was more worried about being drawn into the war than about totalitarianism
  • The People made a movement to forbid war declarations from Congress except for invasions or public approval

Congress Legislates Neutrality

• Lots of books and magazine articles were writen about the Merchants who were making money off of the war by selling goods
• Senator Gerald Nye (North Dakota) led a committee meant to investigate this "profitable business" (1934)
  • Using a form of yellow journalism (exaggerating), this committee placed blame for WWI on American bankers/gun makers instead of Germany
  • People (somehow) felt that since the manufacturers made money from the war, they made the war happen
  • Therefore, if profits were killed, America could avoid the war (majorly twisted logic)
• Congress started passing Acts
  • After Ethiopia/Italy Conflict, the Neutrality Acts of 1935, '36, and '37 were passed
    • They said that when THE PRESIDENT acknowledged a foreign war:
      • No Americans can sell/transport munitions, sail on "belligerent" ships (as in those belionging to people in the war) or make loans to a belligerent
  • Killed the "freedom of the seas" idea
  • The Neutrality Acts were aimed at keeping America out of the war
• All of this was referred to as "Storm-Cellar" Neutrality
  • People hide in a storm cellar during really bad storms (hurricanes, tornadoes....)
• People thought that America could decide whether or not to go to war
  • They didn't consider outside events might force them in
• This neutrality was not very morally sound
  • America wasn't going to treat aggressors and victims differently
  • Since it wouldn't help the weak, the strong could totally p'own

America Dooms Loyalist Spain

• Spain had a Civil War going on (1936-1939)
  • Turned out to be a really mini-version of WWII
• Spanish rebels were fighting against their republican government
  • Led by Fransisco Franco
  • Hitler and Mussolini helped him
  • Wanted to overthrow the Loyalists (who currently led Spain)
  • Got even more help from Stalin, and Americans didn't support the revolution because of the communist ties
• It used to be that the Loyalist Government would have been able to buy munitions from America, but:
  • Congress changed neutrality acts so that there was an arms embargo to Loyalists and Rebels
  • Franco appreciated this (that's not a good thing)
• By not acting, Spain was doomed, and the dictators got more power
  • Nice going America
• America wouldn't join the war, and also wouldn't build the military
  • No way to fend off aggressors (if there were any)
  • Thought that big fleets/navies led to big wars, and didn't want tax-payers to have to build ships during Depression
  • 1938 was the year Congress passed the naval construcion act

Appeasing Japan and Germany

• 1937 Japanese militarists bombed the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing that led to a major invasion of China
  • Curtain Raiser of WWII
• FDR didn't consider this war so no invoking of neutrality legislation
  • for 1, it would cut off the munitions that China really depended on
  • BUT Japan could stil buy lots of war supplies from us
• FDR delivered "Quarantine Speech" in autumn 1937
  • inspired by aggressions of Italy & Japan
  • called for "positive endeavors" to "quarantine" the aggressors (by economic embargoes)
  • isolationists & other anit-involements loudly protested b/c they feared it would lead to a "shooting quarantine"
    • this startled FDR so he sought less direct means to curb the dictators
• December 1937 Japanese aviators bombed & sank an American gunboat Panay in Chinese waters
  • killed 2, wounded 30
  • would've led to war buy TOkyo apologized & paid an indemnity
  • Japanese militarists humiliated Amreicans in China [slappings & stippings]
• Adolf Hitler started defying the Treaty of Versailles
  • 1935 he introduced military service in Germany
  • then he marched into demilitarized German Rhineland
  • then he prosecuted then exterminated the Jewish population in the areas under his control, wipieng out 6 million innocent victims in gas chambers
  • March 1938 Hilter occupied Germany
• the democratic powers stood back & watched in indecision hoping he was done
• Hitler wanted more & more, proceeding to demand for Sudentenland of Czechosolvakia
• This was where Britain & France wanted a conference, ready to appease Hitler
  • FDR also sent many messages to Hitler and Mussolini urging a peaceful settlement
• In Munich, Germany @ the conference, the Western European democracies [& US] hoped Sudentenland was Hitler's last claim & he said it was
• He lied & 6 months after the agreement he took all of Chzechosolvakia

Hitler's Belligerancy and US Neutrality

• summer of 1939 France & Britian tried to negotiate w/ Joseph Stalin a mutual-defense treaty; he declined
  • and instead on August 23, 1939 he signed a nonaggression treaty w. foe Hitler, stunning everyone
• This meant that Hitler now could attack Poland and the Western democracies w.o Soviet Union "stabbing them in the back"
  • everyone knew they were plotting agianst each other
• Germany demanded a return of the areas in Poland taht were takend from them in WWI
  • they invaded Poland @ dawn on Sept 1, 1939
• WWII was finally declared, ending the truce of 1919-1939
  • Britain and France aided Poland & declared war
  • they weren't able to do anything really due to lack of army/military and the fact that it only took Hitler 3 months to claim Poland
• FDR again enforced neutrality, hoping good would triumph over evil
  • Britain and France needed aid but the Neutrality Act of 1937 sternly forbid it
• so FDR went to Congress to make some exception to the Act and after 6 weeks the Neutrality Act of 1939 emerged
  • it said European democracies could buy Am. war materials on a "cash-and-carry basis"
    • they had to transport their own munition in their own ships, paying in cash, this way America avoided: loans, war debts, and torpedoed american arms-carriers
  • FDR also included danger zones where American merchant ships were forbidden to enter
• Th Neutrality Act of 1939 intentionally favored the democracies [own controlled the Atlantic so America could only trade w. them] & sparked Am. economy, helping solve the decade-long unemployment crisis

The Fall of France

• "phony war"- the months after the fall of Poland, a quiet time for Europe
  • Hitler moved his army from Poland to France
  • The quiet period ended when the Soviet Union attacked Finland in order to protect precious and strategic buffer territory
    • Finland granted $30 million by an isolationist Congress for nonmilitary supplies
    • Despite their resistance, Finland fell to the Soviets
• April 1940, a quick end to the "phony war" came when Hitler attacked Denmark & Norway w/o warning & the next month he attacked the Netherlands & Belgium w/ a blow at France afterwards
• By June 1940, France was forced to surrender
  • The British managed to evacuate (& save a bulk of their army) from the French port of Dunkirk
  • The evacuation inspired P.M. Winston Churchill
  • Americans were shocked at France's collapse
• If Britain fell to Hitler, then he would have the "workshops, shipyards, & slave labor of Western Europe" at his disposal & possibly the British fleet
• Roosevelt summoned the debt-burdened nation to build huge airfleets & a 2-ocean navy (to check up on Japan)
  • Congress appropriated $37 billion, which was more than the whole cost of fighting in WWI & 5x the cost of any New Deal budget
  • Sept. 6, 1940(date approved), Congress passes a conscription law
    • under this law, 1.2 million troops & 800,000 reserves are trained each year
• The Netherlands, Denmark, & France adopted colonies in the New World & worried they too would fall to Germany
  • At the Havana Conference of 1940, the US decided to share the responsibility of upholding the Monroe Doctrine w/ its 20 New World neighbors

Hitler's Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter

• Two globe-shaking events marked the course of World War II before the assault on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.
  • One was the fall of France in June 1940
  • The other was Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941
• Hitler and Stalin didnt trust each other.
• They engaged in prolonged dickering in a secret attempt to divide potential territorial spoils between them, but Stalin balked at dominant German congrol of the Balkans.
• Hitler decided to crush his coconspirator, seize the oil and other resources of the Soviet Union and then have two free hands to snuff out Britain.
• On June 22, 1941 Hitler launched a devastating attack on his Soviet neighbor.
  • Roosevelt immediately promised assistance and backed up his words by making some military supplies available.
  • he extended $1 billion

US Detsroyers and Hitler's U-boats Clash

• American convoys under the lend lease act were easy targets for German attack
• In July 1941 FDR decided to allow American destroyers to protect the convoys as far as Iceland, where protection would be taken over by the British
• Despite Hitler's orders not to attack American merchant ships several u-boats did
• FDR permitted American war ships to attack German boats on sight
• neutrality quickly lost support as agressive actions and preperation ensued

Suprise Assault on Pearl Harbor

• Since Sept. 1940, Japan had been a military ally of Nazi Germany
• Japan-still down & out after the "China incident"
• Japan depended on shipments of scrap iron, steel, oil, & aviation gas from the US
• Despite being highly unpopular in US, Roosevelt held off an embargo against Japan out of fear for the weak, oil-rich Dutch East Indies
• In late 1940, Washington imposed the 1st of its embargoes on supplies to Japan
• 1941, US froze Japanese assets in the US & a cessation of all gas shipments & other necessary war items
• Japan had 2 choices:
  • Give in to US demands
  • Break embargo by attacking oil supplies & other riches of Southeast Asia
• Nov. / Dec. 1941, final negotiations w/ Japan took place in Washington
  • The State Department told Japan to leave China & offered to renew trade relations on a limited basis
  • Japan refused to leave China
• Officials in Washington "cracked" the Japanese code & knew the Japanese were going to wage war
  • US could not attack 1st bc of its democratic philosophy & had to wait/listen to public debates & Congress
• Roosevelt was misled by Japanese ship movement & no one (including Roosevelt) expected the Japanese to come after Hawaii 1st
  • While Japan was prolonging negotiations in Washington, Japanese bombers attacked w/o warning on "Black Sunday" (Dec. 7, 1941)
  • 3,000+/- US casualties, many destroyed aircrafts (luckily, the 3 priceless aircraft carriers were outside the harbor), all 8 battleships were sunk or immobilized & many small vessels were destroyed or damaged
• The next day, Congress recognized that war was "thrust" upon the US
  • roll call in the Senate & House was only 1 vote short of unanimity
  • Germany & Italy(Jap. allies) declared war on Dec. 11, 1941
    • a unanimous vote in Senate & House
• The unofficial war was now official

America's Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent

• the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor paid off only in the short run
• it unified Americans as no other event had
• It was not the only cause of American involvement in WWII
• Americans had consistantly followed a series of events that would inevitably lead them to war