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Chapter 03 - Planting Colonies in North America

 

 

 
·         Communities Struggle with Diversity in Seventeenth-Century Santa Fe

o   The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico rose in revolt in August 1680, taking Santa Fe and trapping 3,000 survivors in the Palace of Governors of Santa Fe, sending two crosses—white for surrender and survival, red for defiance and death.

o   In 1609, colonists founded La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco, the “royal town of the holy faith of St. Francis,” and began to convert the Pueblo people into Christians, Spanish subjects, and a labor force for the colonial elite.

o   The Pueblo, faced with Spanish military might, adopted Spanish customs, but merely incorporated them into their own traditions. The missionaries attempted to stamp out Pueblo traditions such as underground kivas (sites for sacred rituals), destroyed religious relics, humiliated holy men, and forced entire villages to perform “penance” by working in the fields and irrigation ditches. The governor hanged four religious leaders and whipped dozens more in 1675. These, combined with widespread famine caused by a severe drought and an epidemic, led to the Pueblo revolt of 1680. Pope, of San Juan Pueblo, organized a conspiracy among more than twenty towns.

o   The Santa Fe colonists returned the red cross, but the Pueblos let them retreat to El Paso in the south after five days. The Pueblos ransacked missionary buildings and converted the palace into a communal dwelling, with the chapel as a new kiva.

o   Without the Spanish, the Pueblo were unable to fend off attacks by the Apaches and Navajos, who used stolen horses and guns to raid the Pueblo villages. Pope was deposed in 1690 in the chaos.

    • The Spanish returned in 1692 under Governor Diego de Vargas, reestablishing colonial rule and crushing another Pueblo rebellion. However, this time, the Spanish were more restrained, tolerating Pueblo religious practices and the inviolability of native land. In return, the Pueblos observed Catholicism in the Spanish chapels and pledged loyalty to the Spanish monarch. The forced labor ended and the Pueblos turned up to service. Remaining autonomous, the Spanish and Pueblo were able to fend off their enemies. 

Spain and its Competitors in North America

  • At the start of the 17th century, Spain controls the only mainland colonial outposts; a series of forts along the Florida coast to protect ships coming from the New World to Spain.
  • Both Spain and France relied on converting the natives to subjects, which caused much cultural mixing and a “frontier of inclusion,” where the Dutch and English made the natives live in separate societies in “frontiers of exclusion.”
  • New Mexico
    • The farming communities of the Southwest provided converts; by 1580, Franciscan missionaries were sent to the Southwest. In 1598, Juan de Onate financed an expedition into the Southwest for gold.
    • Onate met resistance on his expedition. He besieged Acoma, a pueblo above the mountain, overcoming the defenders and taking the survivors as slaves.
    • Unable to find gold, Onate returned to Mexico, but the monarchy established Sante Fe as a missionary colony where Franciscan missionaries penetrated the surrounding area.
  • New France
    • In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established a French settlement called Quebec on the St. Lawrence River to intercept the fur trade and allied with the Huron, helping them wage war against the Iroquois, and sent traders to live with them to learn their customs.
    • The St. Lawrence site allowed the French to control the fur trade, but it isolated the colonists in the winter when it froze over and had a short growing season. Hired men called engages were sent to New France, but 9 out of 10 returned, so the population grew slowly.
    • Young men often became coureur de bois, “wood runners” and independent fur traders. Most returned to French settlements, but some married into the surrounding tribes. In 1681-1682, Robert Sieur de La Salle navigated the Mississippi and claimed the watershed for France.
    • Unlike the Spanish, France did not have the manpower to conquer and exploit the natives, so instead they created alliances with the tribes to control commerce. Also, unlike the Spanish Jesuits who insisted on the natives learning Spanish customs, the French Franciscans adopted local customs and melded Christianity to it.
  • New Netherlands
    • Holland, a small nation, was at the center of the 16th century economic transformation in Europe. New farming technologies increased yields that supported a growing population and made Holland the world’s most urban and commercial nation. In 1581, after a century of rule by the Hapsburgs, the Dutch overthrew the Spanish control and won political independence.
    • The Dutch created the first stock exchange and investment banks, had the largest commercial and fishing fleet in Europe, and captured the Baltic and North Sea trade in fish, lumber, iron, and grain. Holland was Europe’s “America.”
    • The Dutch created two trading monopolies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India company, that combined military might and commerce to create a series of trading posts in China, Indonesia, India, Africa, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America. Holland became the greatest commercial power in the world.
    • The Dutch founded settlements at Fort Orange (now Albany) and along the Hudson River, and allied with the Iroquois, who fought a number of wars with Dutch help called the Beaver Wars (various conflicts from 1640-1680). They dispersed the Hurons, the French allies, in the late 1640s. The Dutch also overwhelmed a small Swedish colony.

England in the Chesapeake

  • Jamestown and the Powhatan Confederacy
    • King James I (reigned 1603-25) issued royal charters to colonize the mid-Atlantic region of Virginia tojoint-stock companies. In 1607, the Virginia Company sent ships and a hundred men to the Chesapeake, creating the first permanent English settlement of Jamestown.
    • The English, saying that the Indians were savages with no rights to respect, pushed out the Algonquian natives there. The Powhatan Confederacy, led by Wahumsonacook (“King Powhatan”), was wary of the English settlers but was eager to ally with them.
    • Jamestown’s residents (adventurers, gentlemen, and “ne’er do wells”came looking for gold and a passage to the Indies. Finding neither, they drank and gambled, surviving only on Powhatan generosity.
    • Powhatan realized that the English had not come to trade, but instead came to conquer.
    • During the 1609-1610 winter, four hundred colonists starved and many turned to cannibalism. Only 40 remained by spring.  
    • To make a profit, the Virginia Company attacked the Powhatans, creating a war that lasted until 1613 when they captured about-15-year old Pocahontas, one of Wahumsonacook’s daughters. To secure peace, Pocahontas was married to John Rolfe, who showed her off in visits to England. Pocahontas fell ill and died; Wahumsonacook, in despair, abdicated in favor of his brother Opechancanough before dying.
  • Tobacco, Expansion, and Warfare
    • John Rolfe developed a mild hybrid of tobacco, which became Virginia’s “merchantable commodity.” Tobacco required large amounts of hand labor and exhausted the soil.
    • The Virginia Company handed out “headright grants”—large  plantations on the condition that the investors would transport the workers from England there themselves. As a result of enclosures pushing out rural farmers, many accepted the offer to work, but high mortality kept the population of Jamestown low.  With English focus on sending immigrants and agriculture instead of trade, Virginia had no need for natives, and thus turned into a “frontier of exclusion.”
    • Opechancanough, pressured by English demands for more land to grow tobacco on, attacked the colonists after native shaman Nemanttanew was murdered, leading to a ten-year war. The Powhatans sued for peace, but the Virginia Company was bankrupted and Virginia was turned into a royal colony. The settlers kept the House of Burgesses, a local governing body that regulated taxes and finances.
    • In 1644, Opechancanough revolted one last time before he was captured and killed by the colonists. The Algonquians were pushed to reservations, shrinking from 14,000 strong to 2,000 by 1670, compared to 40,000 colonists.
  • Maryland
    • In 1632, King Charles I (1625-49) granted 10 million acres at the northern end of the Chesapeake bay to the Calvert family, the Lords Baltimore, important Catholic supporters of the monarchy. Their colony became Maryland, in honor of the Queen, and founded St. Mary’s in 1634. Maryland became a haven for Catholics.
    • Maryland adopted the Virginia system, creating large tobacco plantations.
  • Indentured Servants
    • In exchange for transportation to the New World, men and women contracted labor to a master for a fixed term (2-7 years) or, in the case of children, until they were 21. A minority are convicts or vagabonds bound into service for as long as 14 years.
    • Though they were supposed to be cared for during their service, work in the tobacco fields is rough and many are mistreated. Many try to escape, but to be capture meant an extension on their contract.
    • African slaves are introduced in 1619, but they are rarer because of their greater expense; servants are treated as slaves anyway, and, due to disease, two out of five servants die during their indenture. Upon finishing their contract, indentured servants receive “freedom dues”—clothing, tools, a gun, or a spinning wheel, getting help to start on their own—and many head west to get land of their own. Most return to England.
  • Community Lives in the Chesapeake
    • Because most immigrants were men, unmarried women often married quickly. Men had a higher mortality rate than women in the disease-ridden Chesapeake and widows remarried quickly, negotiating for better marriage agreements; this may have created a “matriarchy.” Because of the small family size, kinship, important in England, is weaker.
    • Communities in the Chesapeake are disparate. Many live in rough dwellings like huts or caves; even prosperous planters, investing everything into their fields, live in rough wood dwellings.
    • Ties remained close to England due to the colonies’ dependence on the motherland.

The New England Colonies

  • The Social and Political Values of Puritanism
    • Puritans, so called because they wish to purify and reform the English church, grew increasingly influential during the last years of Queen Elizabeth’s reign. Puritanism was popular among the merchant class, due to its focus on enterprise, who were responsible for England’s economic transformation. The Puritans protested against the end of rural life due to enclosures and the “idle and masterless men,” proposing communities built around a core congregation of reformed Christians. Their views became part of the Protestant Reformation of England.
    • King James I ended Elizabeth’s religious tolerance policy and persecuted the Puritans. The Puritans openly criticized James’s successor, Charles I, for marrying a Catholic princess and supporting “High Church” policies. The English Civil War that followed provided a pretext for Protestant immigration to New England.
  • Early Contacts in New England
    • Though the north Atlantic coast was initially controlled by French and Dutch traders, an epidemic in 1618 ravages the native population and disrupts the French and Dutch trade there. The surviving coastal societies could not effectively resist colonization.
  • Plymouth Colony and the Mayflower Compact
    • Pilgrims (or Separatists, so called because they separated from the English church, which they believed to be corrupt) backed by the Virginia Company and led by tradesman William Bradford left for North America from Plymouth, England on the Mayflower in September 1620.
    • They land in Massachusetts Bay at the former native village of Pauxtet and rename it Plymouth. The hired men grumble about Pilgrim authority; Bradford drafts the Mayflower Compact to appease them and create a governing body.
    • Half the Pilgrims perish over the winter, but are saved by the Wampanoags led by Massaoit, their sachem (leader), in exchange for help against the Narragansett.   
    • The Plymouth colony is never a commercial success, but does become an independent Puritan community. Eventually, however, they disperse into eleven separate communities and local interests disrupt the Separatist haven.
  • The Massachusetts Bay Colony
    • Wealthy Puritans receive a royal charter and form the Massachusetts Bay Company, which sends 200 settlers to Naumkeag on the Massachusetts Bay, which they rename Salem. They hope to create a “city on a hill” as a model of reform. The Puritan Great Migration relocates 20,000 people to Massachusetts .
    • Settlers take advantage of a loophole in their charter and form a civil government in 1629, which becomes the model for the bicameral Congress in the future US.
  • Indians and Puritans
    • The English take “unused” native land on the basis that the natives have no property rights to the land, using force and underhanded tactics that force the natives to give up land and make deals with corrupt sachems, selling tribal property for personal profit.
    • Native tribes in the west resist Puritan expansion, but are hit by a smallpox epidemic just as a new wave of migrants arrived. The Puritans ally with the Narragansett and attack the Pequot, allied with the Dutch, but the indiscriminate slaughter of the Pequot in their sleep horrifies the Narragansett.
  • The New England Merchants
    • The English Civil War of 1642 deposes King Charles I in 1649 and the English Commonwealth, headed by Oliver Cromwell, replaces the monarchy. Puritan incentive to go North America, and migration, ends. The economy becomes a commerce-based one, selling commodities to the West Indies. The diverse economy lends long-term strength to the New England region, as opposed to the fur economy of New France.
  • Community and Family in Massachusetts
    • Puritans stressed orderly communities and families. Land was given out according to social status; social hierarchy was ordained by God, and thus the more prosperous were obviously the more goodly. Marriages are arranged and only male children receive compulsory education.
    • Women are subordinate to men in Puritan society. Women could not own property, vote, or hold office, and were expected to bear children. Independent women aroused suspicion, leading to various witchcraft accusations, most notably in Salem.
    • The Salem trials exposed negative ideas of women in Puritanism and the social inequality of Puritan society.
  • Dissent and New Communities
    • Puritans had little tolerance for religions not their own. Thomas Hooker, who disagreed with the limits of suffrage to male church members, led his followers to the Connecticut River and founded Hartford.
    • Roger Williams, who advocated religious tolerance and the separation of church and state along with dealing fairly with the natives instead of taking their land, bought land from the Narragansett and founded Providence.
    • Anne Hutchinson, an outspoken and brilliant woman, is excommunicated from the Puritans and moves to William’s settlement and establishes another dissenting community. Williams receives a charter in 1644, establishing the colony of Rhode Island.

The Proprietary Colonies

  • Early Carolina
    • Royal charters issued by Charles II created the new colony of Carolina, stretching from Virginia to Florida. North Carolina was settled by small farmers and large tobacco planters. South Carolina was populated by settlers from Barbados, made wealthy off of the sugar plantations there, and their slaves.
  • From New Netherland to New York
    • New Netherland, supplied by the Dutch West India Company, came under the control of the English after a series of conflicts with the Dutch, also resulting in the bankruptcy of the West India Company, ending Dutch dominance in the Atlantic and passing it to the English.
    • Renamed to New York after the charter was given to the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II. New York was the most heterogeneous society in North America. In 1665, the communities in the Delaware Valley were split off into the proprietary colony of New Jersey, which remained under the control of New York until the 1680s.
  • The Founding of Pennsylvania
    • The rights to western New Jersey were sold to a group of investors including William Penn, part of the Society of Friends (known as Quakers to their opponents). In 1681, Penn received a land grant from the king to a large territory west of New Jersey to settle a debt, founding Philadelphia.
    • Penn drafted a Frame of Government that guaranteed religious freedom, civil liberties, and elected representation.
    • Penn organized the most efficient colonization of the 17th century; ten thousand colonists arrived from England and agricultural communities spread into interior valleys, eventually separating into the colony of Delaware. Pennsylvania became America’s breadbasket and became the most important colonial port in North America.

Conflict and War

  • King Philip’s War
    • Following the Pequot War of 1637 (English settlers versus the Pequot over land and trade in eastern Connecticut), the natives and colonists lived closely, but tensely, together. English missionaries converted some Algonquians, who moved to “praying towns.”
    • Metacom, known as King Philip to the English, led the Pokanokets, one of the few remaining independent tribes. Metacom, educated in and absorbed into the English world, came to realize that the colonists had no room for his people. In 1671, Metacom was pressured into giving up his home territory. In the spring of 1672, three Pokanoket men were executed for the murder of a Christian Indian; Metacom went to the Narragansett, hoping for a defensive alliance against the nearby war.
    • The English used this as a pretext for their attack on the Narragansett, starting King Philip’s War. The natives, though they initially had the upper hand, eventually began to falter; Metacom went to the Iroquois for help, but they reversed and attacked his forces. Metacom retreated and was defeated by the English.
    • The Iroquois and the English joined in the Covenant Chain, which declared the Iroquois dominant over all other tribes, fighting wars as far west as Illinois in a series of conflicts known as the Beaver Wars. The English, fearing another attack, burned the praying towns.
  • Bacon’s Rebellion
    • In the 1670s, the Susquehannock people came into conflict with tobacco planters expanding out of Virginia. Led by Nathaniel Bacon, the frontier planters attacked the natives in 1675, murdering many. William Berkeley moved to suppress these unauthorized attacks and, in doing so, attracted their fury.
    • In the spring of 1676, Bacon and his followers attacked Jamestown, forcing Berkeley to flee across the Chesapeake while the rebels pillaged and burned Jamestown. Bacon fell ill died soon after and the revolt crumbled. Virginia authorities signed a treaty with the Susquehannock, but most had already migrated to New York and integrated with the Iroquois.
    • Bacon’s rebellion was against both the native people and the aristocratic rule of the colonies, exposing the differences between the frontier and the settled coastal regions. Culpeper’s Rebellion in the Albermarle region of North Carolina echoed the first. Colonial authorities began to favor greater military expansion to appease the frontier planters and, to prevent another servant uprising, began to transition from indentured servants to slaves.
  • Wars in the South
    • Charleston merchants encouraged numerous tribes—the Yamasees, Creeks, Cherokees, and Chickasaws—to wage war on tribes allied with the French and Spanish, including the mission Indians of Spanish Florida, the Choctaw allies of France, and the Tuscarora trading partners of Virginia. They used this war to capture natives and fuel a slave trade, selling the men to the Caribbean or northern colonies while the women remained in South Carolina, eventually intermingling with African slaves and having children known as “mustees.”
  • The Glorious Revolution in America
    • James II, the brother and successor of Charles II, began a Catholic monarchy characterized by greater control of the colonies, the rising Puritan minority, and Parliament. The New York assembly was dismantled and placed under the control of the royal governor.  New York, New England, and New Jersey were combined into a single Dominion of New England and had Anglican religious practices placed into Puritan areas and ended local autonomy.
    • After James II had a son from his Catholic wife in 1688, Parliament deposed him and supported his Protestant daughter and son-in-law, Mary and William of Orange. James II fled to France while the new monarchs agreed to the English Bill of Rights, limiting monarchial power and promising to respect traditional civil liberties, making England a constitutional monarchy.
    • When news reached North America, the colonists revolted against the royal authorities placed by James II, eventually reestablishing local colonial rule and self-government, which would continue until Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland became royal colonies in 1692.
  • King William’s War
    • The Iroquois-English Covenant Chain challenged New France’s fur trade and New France pressed further west in response. The English created the Hudson’s Bay Company to compete with the French. Attacks began with English-Iroquois attacks on Montreal and violence between rival English and French traders.
    • This conflict was part of a larger conflict between England and France called  the War of the League of Augsburg, though it was known as King William’s War in the colonies.
    • In 1690, the French and their Algonquian allies counterattacked, burning settlements in New York, New Hampshire, and Main and attacking Iroquois towns. The English captured Port Royal on the Bay of Fundy, but failed to capture Quebec. Fighting ended by the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, but war would break out in five years.
    • England began to reign in its colonies after this war, converting them all to royal colonies. Penn regained control of his colony, but only Rhode Island and Connecticut retained their government out of the royal colonies.
AP Questions
 

1. B.

Like the Roanoke Algonquians, the Pueblo tribe in New Mexico attempted to use the colonists to support them in their struggle against their traditional allies, but Mexican repression of Pueblo traditions and religion led to a mass revolt in 1680. After driving out the Spanish and making Santa Fe their new capital, the Pueblos were attacked by the Apaches and Navajos, who used stolen horses and weapons in their raids. The Spanish returned under Governor Diego de Vargas and reestablished control in 1692. The Pueblos revolted again, but were crushed by military might. However, under new policy, Spanish authorities practiced greater restraint, with the Puebols adopting some Catholic practices while continuing their own and the Spanish ending the practice of forced labor.

 

2. E.

The French and Spanish practiced “frontiers of inclusion” in their colonies, mixing colonial and native cultures. This was largely because the Spanish required native labor on their sugar plantations and mines, and the French did not have the manpower to conquer native peoples and instead forged trading and military alliances with them to dominate the fur trade in the North Atlantic. Neither nation was willing to send many settlers to their colonies, and therefore relied on the native populations. The English, and later the Dutch, practiced “frontiers of exclusion” because their colonies were receiving many immigrants, based on the economic transformation in England, caused by enclosures (which turned out the rural farmer population and sent them into the cities, looking for work), that established a rising merchant and commercial class. With a much larger labor force, the English had no need for native populations and therefore excluded them from society. This need was filled by indentured servants and later slaves.

 

3. C.

Champlain settled Quebec in 1608 along the St. Lawrence River in a spot that allowed them to intercept the fur trade. They allied with the Huron and, in 1609 and 1610, helped them war against their traditional enemies, the Five Nations Iroquois Confederacy. Various factors contributed to the stagnated growth of New France: the St. Lawrence River froze in winter, isolating the colonists and allowing for only a short growing period; the French could have populated New France with the Huguenots (French Calvinists, part of the Protestant Reformation), but decided to keep the colony Catholic; engages (hired men) contracted to the colony for the fishery or fur trade, but nine out of ten returned to France.

 

4. D.

Jamestown, populated by “adventurers, gentlemen, and ne’er do wells (as in ‘never-do-wells,’ thugs and vagabonds)” looking for gold and a passage to the Indies, and finding neither, fell into drinking and gambling, only surviving because the Powhatan Confederacy gave them corn. Wahunsonacook (“King Powhatan”) thought the English would make valuable allies in helping him war against his traditional allies. After more settlers arrived and demanded food, however, the Powhatans reconsidered their policy, realizing that the English had come to invade rather than to trade.  During the 1609-10 winter, 400 colonists starved and the survivors turned to cannibalism. Only 40 remained by the spring. Following this, the Virginia Company that sponsored the Jamestown colony attacked the Powhatans, starting a war that ended in 1613 with the capture of Matoaka, or Pocahontas, and her later marriage to a prominent colonist called John Rolfe.

 

5. D.

The Virginia Company, looking for a “merchantable commodity,” found it in tobacco. John Rolfe developed a mild variety of tobacco, which gave the Company their first returns. Tobacco, which required a large amount of hand labor and quickly exhausted the land, required both the labor of indentured servants and more lands from the natives. The Company handed out “headright grants,” where wealthy investors would  receive large plantations on the condition they would transport the workers to the colony on their own dime. The unemployed, newly cheated out of their traditional lands, turned up in thousands, anxious for work; 10,000 were sent to Jamestown by 1622. Most died, however, of typhoid and malaria epidemics, keeping the population just above a thousand. The focus on immigrant labor turned Virginia into a “frontier of exclusion” that did not require native labor. For land, the colonists pressed the Powhatans; Opechancanough, the brother of Wahunsonacook, led his tribe in a war against the settlers. A shaman priest named Nemattanew supported his actions, and for that was murdered by the English in March 1622. The Powhatans attacked two weeks later. Eventually, the Powhatans sued for peace in 1632, but the Virginia Company was bankrupted; by 1624 Virginia colony had already been turned into a royal colony, though the colonists kept the House of Burgesses, the first representative government in the English colonies.

 

6. B.

Most indentured servants were unskilled young men, though some were unmarried women, skilled craftsmen, or parentless children. A minority were vagabonds and other convicts. They served for a fixed term (2-7 years was the norm, but convicts were held for as much as 14 years, and children were expected to serve until they were 21) and, at the end of their term, received “freedom dues”—land, clothes, a gun or a spinning wheel, and help to get started on their own—but most returned to England. They were badly treated on the tobacco plantations—2 out of every 5 died.

 

7. A

Unlike the independent French and Spanish colonies, the Chesapeake colonies relied on immigrants from the Old World for their labor. Thus, Virginia remained closely tied to England.

 

8. B.

Puritans and Pilgrims, operating under royal charters, arrived in New England with a system of government based off the joint-stock companies that sponsored their trips and English local government. Their civil government formed the basis of the bicameral legislative system in use today.

 

9.  Swine.

We asked Mr. Vincent in class and he said it was swine, though the answer was not in the book... Or we couldn't find it at least.

 

10. E.

Their frontier of exclusion did not require native labor, just native land.

 

11. B.

The Puritans created a system of public schools and colleges, including Harvard College. However, women were excluded from this system, and thus most were illiterate.

 

12. C.

The Stuart Restoration followed the English Civil War of 1642-1649 that deposed Charles I. The Restoration placed his son, Charles II, on the throne, and he gave out many royal charters to establish colonies in New England, including the Carolinas, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania.

 

13. D.

Frontier planters, led by Nathaniel Bacon, broke out in revolt in 1675 against the colonial governor William Berkeley. This revolt was caused in part by Berkeley’s reluctance to help the frontiersmen wage war against the native tribes, but also by social differences among the frontier planters and the coastal communities where the “Indian problem” no longer existed. The rebellion fell apart after Bacon died in 1676.

 

14. B.

The Glorious Revolution deposed James II, Charles II brother and successor, who tried to tighten his control over Parliament, the rising Puritans in Parliament, and the colonies. Parliament, fearing a Catholic dynasty under James II after the birth of a son, replaced him with his Protestant daughter and son-in-law, Mary and William of Orange. They agreed to a Bill of Rights that established England as a constitutional monarchy, or a monarchy limited by laws, as opposed to the previous absolute monarchy.

 

15. E.

Look above. Much settlement of Mexico, Canada, and New England occurred over this time period. The English experienced several changes in power, from the Catholic monarchy under Charles I, the English Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, to the Protestant rule of Charles II, another Catholic monarchy under James II, and then the constitutional monarchy of William I.  Native tribes were decimated by warfare and disease, brought into society in the frontiers of inclusion in New France and New Mexico, and excluded from New England society. The warfare for colonial dominance in the late end of the 17th century would lead to new conflicts in the 18th century, notably the emergence of a revolution.

 

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