1)Loosening Ties
a)A Tradition of Neglect
i)After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profits
ii)Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritism
iii)Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor power
b)The Colonies Divided
i)Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal service
ii)Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies
2)The Struggle for the Continent
a)New France and the Iroquois Nation
i)By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior
ii)To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy
iii)“Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships
iv)Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground
b)Anglo-French Conflicts
i)Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose French
ii)King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to English
iii)Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748
iv)After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated
v)1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender
c)The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War
i)First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack.
(1)Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English
ii)Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction
iii)Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760
iv)Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. R
v)War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions
vi)Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs
vii)Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble
3)The New Imperialism
a)Burdens of Empire
i)After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable
ii)Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new colonies
iii)English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way
iv)New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure
(1)Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire
b)The British and the Tribes
i)To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line
(1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists
ii)More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs
iii)Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well
c)The Colonial Response
i)Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing
ii)Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners
iii)Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assemblies
iv)Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents
v)New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues. Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over “backcountry” settlers
vi)1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor
vii)After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problems
viii)Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt. Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance
(1)Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed
4)Stirrings of Revolt
a)The Stamp Act Crisis
i)Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval
ii)Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as “Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own reps
iii)In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.
iv)Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideological
v)Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)
b)The Townshend Program
i)Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real power
ii)1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refused
iii)1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed “external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax
iv)Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent
v)MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA
vi)Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement
vii)1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on tea
c)The Boston Massacre
i)Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market
ii)March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl
iii)Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd
iv)Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s
d)The Philosophy of Revolt
i)Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, “radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments
ii)New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked
iii)English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powers
iv)Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community
v)Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority
e)The Tea Excitement
i)Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideas
ii)1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants
iii)Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed
iv)Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Liberty
v)Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”
vi)When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses
vii)Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion
viii)Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance
5)Cooperation and War
a)New Sources of Authority
i)Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycotts
ii)Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress
iii)First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions
(1)Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority
(2)Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive legislation
(3)Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British attack against Boston
(4)Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements
(5)Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organization
iv)CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops, Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired
b)Lexington and Concord
i)Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training “minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775
ii)William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British army
iii)Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension
