I. Introduction
George Bush enjoyed great popularity because of his successes in international affairs, but concern over domestic problems hurt him in 1992. Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton made the economy and healthcare into issues that helped him defeat Bush and Ross Perot. Although Republicans won control of both houses of Congress in 1994, Clinton won reelection in 1996. As the economic recovery continued, Clinton continued to face political problems. He was impeached by the House for allegedly committing perjury and obstructing justice in the Monica Lewinsky affair, but he was subsequently acquitted by the Senate. With the nation prosperous and at peace, many expected Vice President Al Gore to win the presidency in 2000. Although Gore won the popular vote, returns from Florida were disputed. Ultimately, more than a month after the election, the Supreme Court halted vote recounts in Florida and gave the state and its electoral votes to George W. Bush. Thus, in the most disputed presidential election since the Hayes-Tilden contest of 1876, George W. Bush was elected president.
II. Economic and Social Anxieties: The Presidency of George H. W. Bush
A. Economic and Social Problems
An economic recession began in late 1989. Social problems continued, with even the middle-class experiencing a decline in standard of living. With some 13 percent of the population having no health insurance, healthcare caused increasing anxiety.
B. Americans with Disabilities Act
A 1990 act outlawed discrimination against physically or mentally challenged people.
C. Failed Promises
In 1990 Bush broke his campaign promise not to raise taxes, eroding his popularity. Although he promised to be “the education president” and the “environmental president,” he failed in both areas.
D. Clarence Thomas Nomination
Charges of sexual harassment against Supreme Court appointee Clarence Thomas concerned many voters, especially women.
III. The End of the Cold War and Global Disorder
A. Collapse of Communist Regimes
East Germany repudiated Communism in 1989, and Germany reunited a year later. In 1991 the Soviet Union dissolved and Gorbachev lost power.
B. Why the Cold War Ended
Both superpowers saw their well?being decline, leading to greater cooperation.
C. START Treaties
America signed two Strategic Arms Reduction Talks treaties with Russia, but by 2000 START II had not been approved by the Russian parliament.
D. Tiananmen Square
In 1989 Chinese officials killed untold numbers of students demanding political change. Still, the Bush administration continued to believe that America’s needs required friendly ties with China.
E. Peace and War in Latin America
Latin America was a major source of immigration to the United States. As civil wars ended in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala, the U.S. accelerated the drug war by attempting to interrupt supply through interdiction.
F. Invasion of Panama
Authorities had ignored Manual Noriega’s role in the drug trade because he supported American policies. In 1990, however, troops invaded Panama to arrest Noriega.
G. End of Apartheid in South Africa
Partly from U.S. pressure, the white minority South African government yielded power.
H. Persian Gulf War
In 1991 the United States and its allies fought a war in response to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait.
I. Operation Restore Hope in Somalia
American troops entered Somalia in an effort to stabilize the nation and forestall the effects of widespread famine.
IV. Economic Doldrums, American Voters, and the Election of 1992
A. A Stagnant Economy
The United States suffered a recession under Bush, and by 1992 the number of poor people in America reached its highest level since 1964.
B. Scandals in Congress
Americans expressed growing resentment at congressional scandals and the improper use of privilege.
C. Bill Clinton
Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton won the Democratic nomination. Clinton hoped to institute a new brand of liberalism, but many of his proposals seemed traditional.
D. Ross Perot
Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot mounted a third?party candidacy in 1992.
E. Los Angeles Riots
In 1992, the acquittal of policemen accused of beating an African American sparked a massive riot in Los Angeles. However, Bush remained inactive in dealing with the nation’s urban and racial problems.
F. Clinton’s Victory
The Clinton?Gore ticket made inroads into some Republican strongholds, and the Clinton-Gore ticket won 43 percent of the popular vote in the three?way race.
V. Bill Clinton, Newt Gingrich, and Political Stalemate
A. Economic Proposals
Clinton’s sponsored tax increases, coupled with what critics considered to be inadequate spending cuts. Tax increases, spending cuts, and economic recovery caused the federal deficit to decline some $83 billion during Clinton’s first fiscal year in office.
B. Legislative Successes
Clinton did manage to lead some important legislation into law.
C. Supreme Court Appointments
Clinton’s appointment of two justices to the Supreme Court during his first term meant that the Court would be less conservative.
D. Defeat of Healthcare Reform
The failure to deliver on healthcare reform was Clinton’s major defeat.
E. A Controversial Couple
Both Bill and Hillary Clinton found themselves in the middle of controversy.
F. Newt Gingrich and the Contract with America
Republican Congressmen made a pledge to reform the nation by endorsing the “Contract with America.”
G. The “Republican Revolution”
Republicans in this election scored one of the most smashing victories in America political history.
VI. Anger, Apathy, and the Election of 1996
A. Hostility to Government and Political Alienation
The U.S. has a long history of antigovernment sentiment. In the 1990s, increasing numbers of Americans shared the three beliefs that all such antigovernment movements have had in common: government has betrayed the people, its leaders are corrupt, and the Constitution has been subverted.
B. Failures and Successes of the “Republican Revolution”
Under the leadership of Newt Gingrich, Republicans in the 104th Congress angered many voters. Clinton began to position himself as the protector of federal programs and policies that the Republicans attacked.
C. The 1996 Election
Clinton easily defeated his opponent, Robert Dole, but did not receive a hoped?for mandate.
VII. The Prospects and Perils of Hegemonic Power: Military Interventions, Peace Diplomacy, Trade, and Culture
A. Ethnic Wars in Former Yugoslavia
Savage ethnic wars, as in Bosnia, replaced Cold War tensions. U.S. and NATO forces began to bomb Yugoslavia in March 1999 ultimately forcing Milosevic to withdraw his troops from Kosovo. The U.S. joined the U.N. in sending a peacekeeping force to the area.
B. Arab-Israeli Agreements
In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War, the PLO and Israel seemed more willing to settle their differences. An agreement was signed between the two in 1993 for Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank’s Jericho. Israel and Jordan signed a peace agreement in 1994. Although terrorism continued to plague the region, Israel withdrew its troops from Hebron in 1997.
C. Genocide in Rwanda
The U.S. and the U.N. responded too late to stop the genocide in Rwanda.
D. Pressures against Haiti and Cuba
American troops were sent to Haiti in Operation Uphold Democracy, but they failed to revitalize the island nation and were subsequently withdrawn. Relations with Cuba continued to be strained, and passage of the Helm-Burton Act in 1996 tightened the economic embargo of Cuba.
E. Trade Expansion and Globalization
The Clinton administration continued to try to keep foreign markets open to American products and to close the U.S. trade gap.
F. Weapons of Mass Destruction
Although weapons proliferation continued to be a major concern, Congress rejected the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996.
G. Environmental and Population Crises
Environmental problems and the continued increase in the world’s population continued to cause world disorder and political instability.
H. Human Rights for Women
Despite gains, women still faced great obstacles to equality.
I. Globalization of American Culture
America continued to export its culture during the 1990s, especially to former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.
VIII. Clinton’s Second Term: Scandal, Impeachment, and Political Survival
A. Whitewater Indictments and Investigation
Clinton continued to be plagued by the Whitewater investigation
B. Monica Lewinsky
Kenneth Starr widened his investigation of Clinton to include lying to a grand jury over the President’s relationship with Monica Lewinsky.
C. Impeachment by the House
Based on Starr’s report, the House passed two articles of impeachment against Clinton in December 1999.
D. Acquittal by the Senate
The Senate acquitted Clinton of the charges against him. Political partisanship continued to prevent passage of much-needed legislation. Republican George W. Bush and Democrat Al Gore began to position themselves for the 2000 presidential race.
E. Columbine
IX. The 2000 Elections, a New Bush, and Terrorism
A. Super Tuesday
Democrat Al Gore, Jr., and Republican George W. Bush swept their parties’ primaries on Super Tuesday and went on to become the presidential candidates of their respective parties for the 2000 election.
B. The Polls¾A Close Race
Although many expected Vice President Al Gore to ride the wave of prosperity and peace to victory in November 2000, by election day the Gallup poll indicated that the race was too close to call.
C. Florida and the Supreme Court
Disputed election returns from Florida led to legal action, first, in the Florida Courts and then, in the United States Supreme Court. In rendering its decision in Bush v. Gore, the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 ruling, halted any further recounts in Florida. This decision gave the state and the presidential election to George W. Bush.
D. Early Bush Positions
Bush’s positions pleased social conservatives, the energy industry, tax reduction advocates, and the insurance industry. President Bush was able to secure passage of a ten-year tax reduction program.
E. Economic Slowdown
The economy moved toward recession by mid-2001, unemployment began to rise, and the projected budget surplus vanished
F. Terrorism
The nation had been plagued by terrorist acts dating back at least two decades.
G. September 11 and Its Impact
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were comparable, in the minds of many Americans, to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The spreading of anthrax through the mails, which had caused the deaths of four people by late October, added to the nation’s woes. In response to the attacks of September 11, the government announced a war against terrorism and first conducted an air campaign against the Taliban and al-Queda forces in Afghanistan. Tom Ridge was appointed director of the Office of Homeland Security, and the government suggested that some civil liberties might have to be restricted to deal with the new crisis.
