I. Introduction
After World War I America assumed an independent position in the world, and most people considered themselves isolationists.
II. Searching for Peace and Order in the 1920s
A. Peace Groups
Several peace organizations began working after World War I to ensure international stability.
B. Washington Conference on the Limitations of Armaments
Nine countries met in Washington, D.C., in 1921?1922, and set arms limits in a rare example of disarmament.
C. Kellogg?Briand Pact
The Kellogg?Briand Pact of 1928 renounced war. The accord had no provisions for enforcement, making it more a statement of moral preference than a diplomatic policy.
III. The World Economy, Cultural Expansion, and the Great Depression
A. U.S. Trade and Investment
The United States underwent great economic expansion that lasted through the 1920s.
B. Cultural Expansion
American culture, aided by mass production, began to influence the world.
C. War Debts and German Reparations
Many European nations wanted America to cancel the tremendous war debts they owed the United States, but American leaders insisted on payment. When Germany defaulted on reparations, American investors offered loans to Germany to meet its obligation.
D. Tariffs and Economic Nationalism
By the 1930s the international economy faced collapse, economic nationalism manifested itself through tariff wars.
E. Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act
At the urging of Cordell Hull, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act to stimulate trade.
IV. United States Hegemony in Latin America
A. Criticisms of United States Interventionism
Critics saw American involvement in Latin America as imperialistic. Many people feared reprisals against American?owned businesses in the region.
B. Good Neighbor Policy
Roosevelt called his approach of exerting more subtle control in Latin America the “Good Neighbor Policy.” American popularity and economic influence increased throughout the hemisphere.
C. National Guards and Dictators
In the Dominican Republic, Rafael Trujillo rose through the ranks of the American-trained national guard to become dictator. American intervention in Nicaragua ended at the urging of César Sandino, but Anastasio Somoza created a pro?American dictatorship that ruled until 1979.
D. Marine Occupation of Haiti
American occupation of Haiti resulted in the exploitation of Haitians, which in turn generated bitterness toward the United States until American troops left in 1929.
E. Backing Batista in Cuba
In 1933 Cubans installed Ramón Grau San Martín as president. When the Cubans seized American property, the United States helped Fulgencio Batista come to power.
F. Control over Puerto Rico
The Jones Act of 1917 gave Puerto Ricans citizenship, but they had little opportunity to govern themselves. In 1952, Puerto Rico gained commonwealth status, but Puerto Ricans remain divided on statehood.
G. Clash with Mexican Nationalism
In 1938 Mexico nationalized foreign?owned petroleum companies. Fearing that Mexican oil would end up in Germany or Japan, Roosevelt acquiesced to the move.
H. Pan?Americanism
America’s status in Latin America improved with the promise of nonintervention at the 1936 Pan American Conference. This agreement helped ensure hemispheric unity at the onset of World War II.
V. Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and War in Europe
A. German Aggression Under Hitler
In 1936, German troops moved into the Rhineland and Hitler formed an alliance with Italy and Japan. The Anti?Comintern Pact united Germany and Japan against Russia. Hitler convinced representatives of Britain and France to not oppose his annexation of Czechoslovakia.
B. Poland and the Outbreak of World War II
Britain and France announced that they would defend Poland’s independence. When Hitler invaded Poland in 1939, they declared war on Germany.
C. U.S. Recognition of the Soviet Union
American businesses profited from Soviet purchases in the early 1930s. Roosevelt recognized the Soviet Union in 1933 to improve trade and to deter Japanese aggression.
VI. Isolationism, Neutrality Acts, and Roosevelt’s Cautious Foreign Policy
A. Nye Committee Hearings
Isolationists in the 1930s believed that American involvement in World War I had been a mistake and feared that business interests might take the nation into a war because of ties to Germany and Italy.
B. Neutrality Acts
Roosevelt supported isolationism, a position reflected in the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937.
C. Roosevelt’s Evolving Views
Roosevelt became increasingly troubled by the aggressive behavior of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
D. Repeal of the Arms Embargo
At Roosevelt’s request, in 1939 Congress repealed the embargo and approved cash?and-carry exports of arms.
VII. Japan, China, and a New Order in Asia
A. Jiang Jieshi
In the 1920s, Jiang Jieshi ousted Mao Zedong and won the support of the United States, which increased Japanese suspicions of Chinese?American relations.
B. Manchurian Crisis
Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and the United States responded with the Stimson Doctrine of nonrecognition.
C. Roosevelt’s Quarantine Speech
In October 1937, Roosevelt denounced international aggression in his “quarantine speech.”
VIII. On a Collision Course with Japan and Germany, 1939-1941
A. Foreign Policy Debate
From 1939 to 1941 American interest in foreign policy issues reached an all?time high.
B. The Fall of France
After France fell in 1940, isolationist sentiments in the United States declined. Roosevelt began to aid the Allies with the sale and lease of American military surpluses.
C. Lend?Lease Act
The Lend?Lease Act of 1940 went into effect to help Britain avoid defeat. The United States became the “arsenal for democracy” by lending and leasing American military goods to those fighting the Axis powers.
D. Atlantic Charter
In August 1941, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, which set war aims of collective security, self-determination, economic cooperation, and freedom of the seas.
E. Greer Incident
When a German U-boat fired at an American destroyer, Roosevelt used the incident to shape public opinion toward intervention in World War II.
IX. Why War Came: Pearl Harbor and U.S. Entry into World War II
A. U.S. Demands on Japan
When Japan signed the Tripartite Pact the United States stopped selling aviation fuel and scrap metal to them. With the occupation of Indochina, America froze Japanese assets ending most trade, including oil, with Japan.
B. Surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese made a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This attack turned American sentiment sharply against the Japanese.
C. Explaining Pearl Harbor
Roosevelt did not conspire to leave the fleet vulnerable to attack; the Japanese caught the American forces off guard because no one thought they would attack so far from home. The United States declared war on Japan, and three days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.
D. Clash of Systems
The United States sought a liberal capitalist world order with all nations enjoying freedom of trade and investment. The dictators did not.
