I. Introduction
Between 1865 and 1914, America grew increasingly expansionist. As expansion became imperialism, the United States became involved in crises and wars around the world.
II. Imperial Promoters: The Foreign Policy Elite and Economic Expansion
A. Foreign Policy Elite
An elite group of Americans shaped foreign policy.
B. Foreign Trade Expansion
Foreign trade proved important in the post?Civil War economic growth. Agriculture accounted for most exports, but businessmen also sought foreign markets.
III. Ideology, Culture, and Empire
A. Race Thinking
Supporters of expansion used theories on race as a justification. The stereotypical manner in which foreigners were portrayed in popular magazines, school textbooks, and world’s fairs reflected an ethnocentric American attitude.
B. Male Ethos
U.S. leaders used gendered language to place weaker nations in the low ranks of the hierarchy of power, thus justifying U.S. hegemony.
C. Missionaries
Missionaries contributed to American expansionism by spreading American religion, and influence, abroad.
D. The “Civilizing” Impulse
When they intervened in other lands, Americans justified it on the grounds that the United States offered these societies the blessings of liberty and prosperity.
IV. Ambitions Abroad, 1860s?1880s
A. William H. Seward’s Quest for Empire
William Seward believed that the nation would eventually establish an empire as the result of a natural process of gravitation toward the United States. To accelerate this process he favored U.S. trade expansion, a Central American canal, a transcontinental American railroad, and improved communications systems.
B. International Communications
In 1866, a transatlantic cable linked the United States to Europe. This innovation made effective international communications a primary goal of American diplomacy.
C. Anglo-Canadian-American Relations
Improved relations between America and England began with the Washington Treaty of 1871, and other events revealed a rapprochement between the powers.
D. Sino?American Troubles
Anti-Chinese riots in the American West and Congress’ suspension of Chinese immigration caused a deterioration of relations with China.
E. Pan?American Conference
The Pan?American Conference demonstrated growing U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere.
F. Alfred T. Mahan, Navalism, and the New Navy
Alfred T. Mahan’ s Influence of Sea Power Upon History convinced expansionists of the need for a modern navy.
V. Crises in the 1890s: Hawaii, Venezuela, and Cuba
A. Annexation of Hawai’i
Americans overthrew Queen Lili’uokalani and asked for annexation to the U.S. in 1893. Annexation was delayed, but McKinley maneuvered it through Congress in 1898.
B. Venezuelan Boundary Dispute
A border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana led the United States to declare its right to intervene. The British accepted the American position to keep the United States friendly in light of an expansive Germany.
C. U.S. Interests and Revolution in Cuba
The United States had extensive economic interests in Cuba, and cultural ties existed because nearly a hundred thousand Cubans had migrated to the United States. When a revolution against Spanish rule broke out in Cuba in 1895, rebel leader José Martí obtained funds, supplies, and support in the United States.
D. Sinking of the Maine
To protect American interests in Cuba, McKinley ordered the U.S.S. Maine to Havana. In February 1898, the ship blew up, killing 266 sailors.
E. McKinley’s Ultimatum and War Decision
McKinley asked for a declaration of war in order to advance the cause of humanity and to protect American interests. Congress concurred on April 19, 1898.
VI. The Spanish?American?Cuban?Filipino War and the Debate over Empire
A. Motives for War
Complex political, economic, social, and military motives led to war.
B. The U.S. Military at War
Of the 263,000 men who served in the war, most never left the United States. Thousands of black troops stationed in the South had to deal with violent racism.
C. Dewey in the Philippines
The first fighting took place in May, when Admiral Dewey’s squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila.
D. Treaty of Paris
In December 1898, American and Spanish negotiators agreed on terms that granted Cuban independence. America gained the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
E. Anti?Imperialist Arguments
Many critics denounced imperialism as counter to American principles. Others argued that the nation could expand its markets without subjugating other countries. Labor leaders feared that imperialism was bad for American workers.
F. Imperialist Arguments
Imperialists successfully answered their critics by appealing to patriotism, destiny, and commerce.
VII. Asian Encounters: Open Door in China, Philippine Insurrection, and Japan
A. Open Door Policy
Secretary of State John Hay issued the Open Door Note in 1899, asking all nations to guarantee free trade in China. Following the Boxer Rebellion, Hay issued a second note promising to protect the integrity of China.
B. Philippine Insurrection and Pacification
Emilio Aguinaldo declared an independent Philippines in 1899, starting the Philippine Insurrection that lasted until 1902.
C. Japanese Expansion
As the Japanese became the dominant power in Asia, tensions between the United States and Japan increased—especially regarding China.
D. Anti?Japanese Bias in California
West Coast Americans exhibited anti?Asian bias in a number of ways.
VIII. Latin America, Europe, and International Rivalry
A. Economic Hegemony in Latin America
Latin America became a primary target of American economic expansion. Some American companies gained considerable political power in Latin America.
B. Cuba and the Platt Amendment
The Platt Amendment required American approval of all Cuban treaties and assumed for the United States the right to intervene in Cuba.
C. Panama Canal
After settling prior agreements with Britain and supporting a revolution against Colombia, the United States signed a treaty with Panama to build a canal.
D. Roosevelt Corollary
To prevent European intervention in Latin America, Theodore Roosevelt announced a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that led to American intervention in the region.
E. U.S.-Mexico Relations Under Diaz
Porfirio Diaz invited U.S. investment in Mexico, but revolutionaries reversed the trend.
F. Anglo-American Rapprochement
Rivalry with Germany caused Britain to seek friendship with the U.S. British-American trade and U.S. investment in Britain also helped secure ties between the two countries.
