I. Introduction
Americans assumed that the Constitution would create consensus, but the nation still faced political, economic, and diplomatic questions that led to partisan politics during the 1790s.
II. Building a Workable Government
A. Tasks of the First Congress
The First Congress had the tasks of raising money, creating a bill of rights, setting up the executive departments, and organizing the federal judiciary.
B. Madison and the First Congress
James Madison persuaded Congress to adopt the Revenue Act of 1789. Madison also took the lead in presenting the constitutional amendments that came to be called the Bill of Rights.
C. Bill of Rights
The states ratified ten amendments, which became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791.
D. Executive Branch
Congress organized the executive branch with three main departments¾War, State, and Treasury¾and granted the President the authority to dismiss appointed officials.
E. Federal Judiciary
The Judiciary Act established a Supreme Court, defined federal jurisdiction, created district and appeals courts, and allowed for appeals from state courts to federal courts.
III. Domestic Policy Under Washington and Hamilton
A. Washington’s First Steps
Washington understood the importance his actions would have as precedents, and moved cautiously at first.
B. Alexander Hamilton
Hamilton’s zeal had attracted the favor of Washington, who appointed him Secretary of the Treasury. Nationalism and cynicism shaped Hamilton’s policies.
C. National and State Debts
Hamilton wanted the government to repay its debt at full value and to assume the war debts of the states.
D. Hamilton’s Financial Plan
Hamilton hoped to extend the authority of the national government and gain the support of securities holders.
E. First Bank of the United States
Hamilton advocated a national bank, touching off an intense constitutional debate. His brilliant defense of what became known as “broad constructionism” eventually assured creation of the bank.
F. Strict and Broad Constructions of the Constitution
The actions of the Washington administration led to debates over the authority of Congress to pass laws not specifically authorized by the Constitution.
G. Hamilton’s Report on Manufactures
Hamilton’s Report outlined a plan intended to encourage and protect the nation’s infant industries. The report was rejected by Congress.
H. Whiskey Rebellion
When farmers protested a federal tax on whiskey, which they distilled from their grain, Washington forcefully demonstrated the strength of the national government.
IV. The French Revolution and the Development of Partisan Politics
A. Democratic-Republicans and Federalists
Supporters of Hamilton and Jefferson gradually divided into opposing camps.
B. The French Revolution
The U.S. divided as observers welcomed republicanism to Europe but recoiled at its excesses. Commercial interests tied the U.S. to Great Britain, enemy of the revolution.
C. Citizen Genêt
Disagreements over the American response to the French Revolution led to partisanship. Still, both sides agreed that the United States should remain impartial when Citizen Edmund Genêt called on President Washington.
D. Democratic-Republican Societies
Democratic-Republican Societies expressed opposition to administration policies and thereby generated the first formal political dissent in the United States.
V. Partisan Politics and Relations with Great Britain
A. Jay Treaty
In 1794, John Jay negotiated a treaty with Great Britain in an effort to resolve several differences between the two nations. The treaty faced strong opposition, but eventually won the approval of Congress.
B. Partisan Divisions in Congress
Politicians in the U.S. witnessed the evolution of political parties.
C. Bases of Partisanship
Democratic-Republicans, generally from the southern and middle states, tended to be optimistic, to espouse democracy, and to embrace individualism. Federalists, mostly from New England, expressed more fears for the future and tended to come from the commercial class.
D. Washington’s Farewell Address
As he left office, Washington encouraged Americans to maintain commercial ties but not political relations with other nations and to avoid permanent alliances. He also expressed sorrow over factional divisions within the republic. In effect, Washington was calling on his fellow countrymen to rally behind the Federalist banner and to reject the Democratic-Republicans in the upcoming elections.
E. Election of 1796
Federalist John Adams won the presidency in 1796, but the constitutional means of determining a vice president led to the election of Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican.
VI. John Adams and Political Dissent
A. XYZ Affair
When Americans learned that French agents had demanded a bribe of American negotiators, anti-French sentiment swept the United States.
B. Quasi-War with France
The U.S. fought an undeclared naval war with France, mostly in Caribbean waters.
C. Alien and Sedition Acts
Federalists hoped to capitalize politically on Americans’ anger toward France by passing four laws to suppress dissent and limit the growth of the Republican Party.
D. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
Jefferson and Madison responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts by claiming that since a compact among the states created the Constitution, the states could review the constitutionality of federal actions.
E. Convention of 1800
A meeting between French and American diplomats ended the Quasi-War.
F. Election of 1800
In the 1800 election, electoral procedures resulted in a tie between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. After 35 ballots, the lame-duck, Federalist-dominated House of Representatives finally settled the election in favor of Jefferson.
VII. Race Relations at the End of the Century
A. “Civilizing” the Indians
The Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1793 was a well-intentioned plan to “civilize” Native Americans, but the plan ignored the cultural traditions of the eastern Indian peoples.
B. Iroquois and Cherokees
The Cherokees adapted some of the teachings of Quaker missionaries to their own culture. Iroquois culture, due largely to the influence of Handsome Lake, adapted to European patterns to survive changed circumstances.
C. African Americans and Ideas of Freedom
Like the Indians, Africans Americans adapted the dominant society’s ideas to their own circumstances.
D. Gabriel’s Rebellion
Gabriel Prosser led an unsuccessful revolt in Virginia that he hoped would bring equality for African Americans.
