I. Introduction
The American Revolution required patriot leaders to establish a coalition in favor of independence, to gain foreign recognition, and to triumph over the British army.
II. Government by Congress and Committee
A. First Continental Congress
The Congress had to define its grievances and define a plan of resistance. A third goal¾outlining constitutional relations with England¾proved more troublesome.
B. Declaration of Rights and Grievances
Delegates declared that the colonies would obey bona fide acts of Parliament. Americans would not condone taxes in disguise, and Congress enacted a boycott of England and demanded nonexportation of American goods.
C. Committees of Observation
Congress called for the creation of committees of observation and inspection to enforce its economic proposals. These committees became de facto governments.
D. Provincial Conventions
By the early spring of 1775, many colonial governments collapsed in the face of patriot challenges to their authority.
III. Choosing Sides: Loyalists, African Americans, and Indians
A. Loyalists
About 20 percent of Americans recognized dangers in resistance and remained loyal to England. One thing that loyalists had in common was their opposition to men who became patriot leaders.
B. Patriots and Neutrals
Those who became active revolutionaries constituted about 40 percent of the population and came primarily from those who had dominated colonial society. Another 40 percent chose to be neutral and, along with loyalists, suffered persecution at the hands of the patriots.
C. The Slaves’ Dilemma
Slaves generally sought to escape their bondage by supporting the English. The fear of slave uprisings shaped events in the Caribbean and on the mainland.
D. Slavery and Revolutionary Fervor
Colonies with the highest percentages of African Americans expressed the lowest support for the revolution.
E. Indians’ Grievances
By 1775, Indians felt great resentment and bitterness toward Americans’ aggressive expansionism. Both the British and the Americans sought to maintain Indian neutrality rather than active participation in the war.
F. Indians During the Revolution
Some Shawnee and Cherokee tribes attacked settlements, but the Indians suffered defeat. The Iroquois, like most tribes, followed policies of nonalignment.
IV. War and Independence
A. Battles of Lexington and Concord
General Thomas Gage moved to confiscate weapons the patriots held. Militiamen awaiting the British at Lexington and Concord drove the troops back to Boston with heavy losses.
B. First Year of War
Both sides used a year-long lull in the fighting to plan their future strategies.
C. British Strategy
British leaders assumed, erroneously, that the Americans would not stand up to professional troops, that the English could fight a conventional war, and that military victory would win the war.
D. Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress quickly moved to establish a viable government. One of its most important decisions resulted in the Continental Army.
E. George Washington: A Portrait of Leadership
George Washington, commander-in-chief of the army, had attributes essential to an American victory: moral integrity, physical stamina, and intense patriotism.
F. British Evacuation of Boston
The arrival of American cannon convinced Sir William Howe to evacuate Boston.
G. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
Thomas Paine stridently attacked English mistreatment of the colonies, and he unequivocally advocated creation of an independent republic. His popular book helped many Americans accept separation from Britain.
H. Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence
Congress approved Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence, which contained a list of grievances against George III and a stirring statement of American political ideals.
V. The Long Struggle in the North
A. Loss of New York
The American’s faced potential disaster in defending New York. Although Washington deserted the city, he managed to hold the core of the army together.
B. Battles in New Jersey
British plundering of New Jersey rallied many reluctant Americans to the patriot cause and convinced Washington to strike. Victories at Trenton and Princeton cheered American spirits as the army settled in for the winter.
C. The American Army
The Continental Army included white and black troops, augmented by short-term militiamen. Officers developed a powerful sense of pride and commitment to their cause.
D. Planning the 1777 Campaign
General John Burgoyne planned a three-pronged invasion of New York that required close cooperation between all commanders but gave Burgoyne the glory.
E. Howe Takes Philadelphia
Ignoring Burgoyne’s plan and operating independently, Howe moved against Philadelphia in 1777, but logistical delays and American resistance prevented him from gaining any real advantage when he captured the city in September.
F. Burgoyne’s Campaign in New York
General John Burgoyne suffered a disastrous defeat in 1777. He hoped to divide the colonies by marching through New York, but he was forced to surrender with 6,000 men near Saratoga on October 17.
G. Split of the Iroquois Confederacy
The Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777, revealed a split in the 300-year-old Iroquois Confederacy. Despite pledges of neutrality, several tribes supported the British; others fought for the Americans.
H. Franco-American Alliance of 1778
The victory at Saratoga led to French recognition of American independence, and a Treaty of Alliance brought France into the war in support of the new nation.
VI. The Long Struggle in the South
A. British Victories in South Carolina
Charleston fell in May 1780, but the English never really established control over South Carolina, and they remained vulnerable to the French navy.
B. Greene and the Southern Campaign
Nathanael Greene assumed command of American forces in South Carolina, and he instituted effective policies toward the British, loyalists, and Indians.
VII. Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris
A. Surrender at Yorktown
Lord Cornwallis led his troops into Virginia and encamped at Yorktown, where American and French operations forced him to surrender.
B. The Cost of Victory
Over 25,000 American men lost their lives in the war, the South’s economy was shattered, and indebtedness soared.
C. Treaty of Paris
The war ended with a treaty signed on September 3, 1783. England recognized independence, accepted the Atlantic Ocean, the Mississippi River, Canada, and Florida as the American boundaries, and gave up fishing rights off of Newfoundland.
