Grant Clay
12.0pt">Period 3
9/7/08
12.0pt">
AP Psychology Outline
Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behavior
Red – Definition
Blue - Important Points
Green - Important People & Contributions
Nervous System: The Basics
- Neurons – Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.
- They are basic links that allow communication within the Nervous System.
- Soma – Cell Body of the neuron that contains the nucleus and much of cells normal organs.
- Dendrite – Parts of a Neuron that receives information.
- Axon – Long fiber that transmits information away to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
- Myelin Sheath – Insulating Material that encases some Axons.
- Terminal Button – Small knobs where neurotransmitters are transmitted activating neighboring neurons.
- Synapse – Junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
- There is lots of variety among Neurons, so not all neurons contain all these parts.
- Glia – Cells in Nervous System that provides various support for neurons.
- Glial cells supply nourishment to neurons, remove neurons waste products, and provide insulation around many axons.
The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information
tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1. Neural Impulse – The signal that moves through the Neuron. tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman";color:green">2. All the Study of the Neuron done on a Squids Neuron (Which is much bigger than a Humans) By Hodgkin and Huxley. tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1. Neuron At Rest tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· The Neuron at rest is a small battery, from the uneven Ion charges from the fluid around it of Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K). tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Resting Potential – The Stable, Negative Charge when the Cell is inactive. tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">2. The Action Potential tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Action Potential – A very brief shift in a Neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Absolute Refractory Period – Minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin. Only about 1 or 2 Milliseconds. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· All-Or-None Law – Neural Impulses either Fire or don’t fire. There is no Half-Fire. A faster Rate of transmission means a stronger Stimulus. tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">3. The Synapse tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Synaptic Cleft – The gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· The two Membranes of the different Neurons do not touch. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Neurotransmitters – Chemicals that transmit information from one Neuron to another. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Synaptic Vesicles – The body that Neurotransmitters are transmitted across the gap in. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Pre-Synaptic Neuron – The Neuron that sends the Signal across the Gap. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Post-Synaptic Neuron – The Neuron that receives the Signal. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Receptor Site - Where the Synaptic Vesicles bind releasing the information into the new Neuron.tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">4. Receiving Signals: Postsynaptic Potentials tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Post-Synaptic Potential (PSP) – A voltage change at the receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· PSP’s are not normal">All-Or-Nothing Law; they are graded and increase/decrease the probability of a neural impulse in the receiving Cell. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Excitatory PSP – Positive Voltage shift, Increases likelihood that Postsynaptic Neuron will fire Action Potentials. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Inhibitory PSP – Negative Voltage shift, decreases likelihood that Postsynaptic Neuron will fire Action Potentials. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· The Voltage shift depends upon which Receptor Sites are activated in the Postsynaptic Neuron. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Reuptake – Process which Neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the Presynaptic Membrane. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Thousands of Neurons are connected to Thousands of Neurons. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· If there is enough Excitatory PSP’s, electrical voltage builds up to the threshold where an Action Potential can be fired. However, many Inhibitory PSP’s will cancel the effects of the Excitatory PSP’s.
tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">5. Neurotransmitters and Behavior tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Acetylcholine – Transmitter between Motor Neurons and Voluntary Muscles. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Agonist – Chemical that mimics the action of a Neurotransmitter. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Antagonist – Chemical that opposes the action of a Neurotransmitter. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· The Agonist causes PSP’s, while the Antagonist Blocks PSP’s. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Monoamines – 3 Neurotransmitters: Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Serotonin. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Dopamine – Used by Neurons that Control Voluntary Movement. tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">1. Degeneration of Dopamine leads to Parkinson’s disease. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Serotonin – Plays a prominent role in sleep, wakefulness, and eating Behavior. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:blue">· Abnormal levels of Monoamines lead to Psychological Disorders. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Depression = Low activation of Norepinephrine and Serotonin Synapses. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Schizophrenia – Over activation of Dopamine Synapses. tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">1. Schizophrenia affects 1% of Population, and causes Hospitalization more than any Psychological Disorder. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:blue">· Effects of Drugs like Cocaine and Amphetamines are caused by temporary increased activity at Dopamine and Norepinephrine Synapses. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· GABA – GABA and Glycine acts as inhibitory effects at all synapses. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Plays in Anxiety, Seizures, and Sleep. tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">· Endorphins – Internally produced chemicals that resemble Opiates in structure and effects. tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:green">· Candace Pert & Solomon Snyder: Morphine exerts its effects by binding to specialized receptors in the Brain. (Endorphin Receptors) normal"> tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:green">· Endorphins contribute to modulation of Pain and a variety of other things.
Organization of Nervous System
- Peripheral Nervous System & Central Nervous System
- Nerves – Bundles of Neuron Fibers (Axons) that are routed together in the Peripheral Nervous System.
- Peripheral Nervous System – Made up of all those nerves that lie outside the Brain and Spinal Cord.
- Somatic Nervous System – Made up of Nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal Muscles and to Sensory Receptors.
- Autonomic Nervous System – Made up of Nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.
- Central Nervous System
- Central Nervous System – Consists of the brain and the Spinal Cord.
Looking Inside the Brain: Research methods
- Electrical Recording – Electroencephalograph (EEG) - Device that monitors the electrical activity of the Brain over time by attaching Electrodes t the scalp.
- Lesioning – Destroying pieces of the Brain and observing the effects. Mostly done on Animals.
- Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) – Sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) – Technique using Magnets that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the Brain.
- Brain-Imaging Procedures – CT. PET, and MRI scans can give scientists imaging of the Brain and the parts of it that are aroused by stimuli.
The Brain and Behavior
- Hindbrain
- Hindbrain – Includes the Cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: The Medulla and the Pons.
- Midbrain – Segment of Brainstem between Hindbrain and Forebrain.
- Forebrain – largest and most complex region of Brain. Includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic System, and Cerebrum.
- The Plasticity of the Brain
Right Brain/Left Brain: Cerebral Laterality
- Roger Sperry Studied Split Brain in 1960’s. Won Nobel Prize for Work.
- Split Brain Research
- Split-Brain Surgery – Corpus Callosum (Connects the two Hemispheres) is cut to reduce severity of Epileptic Seizures.
- Each Hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite side of the body.
- Hemispheric Specialization of Intact brain
- Perceptual Asymmetries – Left/Right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual or auditory processing.
- Left Hemisphere = Verbal Processing, Language, speech, reading, writing.
- Right Hemisphere = Nonverbal processing, spatial, musical, and visual-recognition tasks.
Endocrine System
- Endocrine System – Consists of Glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.
- Hormones – The chemical Messengers in the Endocrine System.
- Hormones travel throughout the body much slower than Neurotransmitters.
- They regulate many physical and Behavioral functions.
- Pituitary Gland – Based in the Hypothalamus, it releases the Hormones into the body.
- The Endocrine System is in charge of the Adrenaline effect.
Heredity and Behavior
- Behavioral Genetics – Field that studies the influence of Genetic Factors on Behavioral Traits.
- Basic Principles of Genetics
- Chromosomes – Strands of DNA that carry Genetic Information.
- Zygote – Single Cell formed by the union of a Sperm and Egg.
- Genes – DNA segments that serve as key units in Hereditary Transmission.
- Homozygous – Two genes in a specific Pair are the Same.
- Heterozygous – Two genes on a specific pair are Different.
- Genotype – Persons Genetic Makeup.
- Phenotype – Ways in which a Genotype is shown in Observable Characteristics.
- Polygenic Traits – Characteristics that are influenced by more than 1 Pair of Genes.
- Heredity Research Methods
- Family Studies – Researchers compare Blood relatives to see how much they are similar in a trait.
- Twin Studies – Researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of Identical and Fraternal Twins on a specific trait.
- Identical Twins – Emerge from one Zygote that splits for unknown reasons.
- Fraternal Twins – Emerge from two eggs being simultaneously fertilized by different sperm cells.
- Adoption Studies – Assess Hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both Biological and Adoptive parents.
- Genetic Mapping – Process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes.
- Interplay of Heredity and Environment
- Both Heredity and Environment effect Behavior.
Evolutionary Bases of Behavior
- Charles Darwin
- Fitness – The reproductive success of an individual organism in comparison to population.
- Natural Selection – Heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to latter generations.
Refinements to Evolution
- Theodore Dobzhansky – By using the Hereditary work of Gregor Mendel, synthesized Evolution into a widely accepted theory on 1950’s.
- Adaptation – Inherited characteristic that increased in a population through Natural Selection, because it solved a problem of survival or Reproduction when it emerged.
- Inclusive Fitness – Individuals own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of others.
- The more closely genetically related one is, the more likely to perform Self-Sacrifice.
Behavior as an Adaptive Trait
- Behavior Adapts over Generations to help avoid Predators and to Reproduce.
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