• AFRICA
  • Influence of Geography
    • Divided nearly in half by the equator-central portion of Africa lies within the tropics
    • Series of plateaus
    • Smooth coastline limits the number of good natural harbors
    • Deserts isolated Africa south of the Saharaàhelped to create cultural diversity
    • Falls and rapids near the mouths of riversàinterior navigation difficult
    • Thanks to the falls and rapids, Africa has great hydroelectric power potential
    • Nile River provides fresh supply of soil; makes irrigation, transportation, and communication possibleà Many early civilizations developed along the river. The river provided routes of trade and cultural diffusion.
    • The Great Rift Valley (canyon) and the Nile River influenced migration in East Africa, forcing people to move in a north-south direction
  • Ghana, Mali, Songhai
    • West African trading kingdoms
    • Had vast trading networks
      • Trans-Saharan trade routes
    • Main export was gold
  • Ghana (A.D. 300)
    • Developed along the Niger River
    • Located between salt mines and gold mines
    • Fertile land
    • Strong central government
    • Skilled craftsmen in the smelting of iron
    • Large army
  • Mali (13c)
    • Muslim kingdom
    • Taxed all goods transported through kingdom
    • Money from taxes supported the government and military, funded the construction of mosques and palaces
    • Timbuktuàimportant center of Arabic and Islamic learning
    • Rulerà Mansa Musa
  • Songhai (15c)
    • Rulerà Sunni Ali
    • Muslim kingdom
    • Larger than Mali and Ghana
    • Controlled sources of gold and salt
    • Taxed imports and exports
    • Late 16c- Invaded and defeated by armies from Morocco
  • Triangle Trade
    • European goods were shipped from Europe to Africa, where they were traded for African slaves (Outward Passage)
    • Africans were transported to the Americas, where they were traded for sugar and tobacco (Middle Passage)
    • Sugar and tobacco were sent back to Europe, and sold for profit (Inward Passage)
  • Partition & the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
    • European nations met in Berlin to decide how Africa should be divided into colonial territories
    • Set up rules for future occupation of Africa and for navigation of the rivers
    • France took most of western Africa and the Republic of Congo
    • Great Britain took Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Nigeria, and Ghana
    • Belgium took Belgian Congo
    • Portugal took Mozambique and Angola
    • Italy took Somalia and a portion of Ethiopia
    • Germany took Namibia and Tanzania
  • Anti-colonialism
    • Zulu fought the British and Boers in South Africa
    • The Sudanese fought the British
    • The Mandingo fought the French in West Africa
    • Africans did not have good weapons like the Europeans did
    • Some used guerrilla tactics, others used passive resistance
  • Clash of Values Between Traditional & Modern Life
    • Development of many major urban areas
      • Arranged marriages become less common
      • Young people no longer need an extended family
      • Old ethnic authority structure is breaking down
      • Polygamy is no longer practical for most Africans
      • Urban African females are active in politics, law, medicine, and other professions
    • Rural Areas
      • Retain traditional values, attitudes, and practices
      • Strong loyalty to ethnic group and authority system
      • Strong community spirit
  • There is a clash of values because of the changing attitudes of those that live in urban areas
    • Africans gain knowledge of Western ideas and wish to adopt these concepts.
    • Industrialization and modernization bring new technology to Africa
    • Women are no longer willing to accept subordinate roles

• SOUTH AFRICA
  • African National Congress (ANC)
    • Created in 1912 to unite the South African blacks, to end segregation, and to work for the right to take part in government
    • Originally a nonviolent organization
    • After the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960à Sabotage
    • Government banned the ANC and arrested its leaders, incl. Mandela
  • Nelson Mandela (1918- )
    • A black South African leader who protested the policy of Apartheid
    • Spent over thirty years in prison
    • Became the first black president of South Africa
    • Won Nobel Peace Prize
  • Post-Apartheid Politics
    • New constitution was writtenàfreedom of speech and fair trial, freedom to choose where to live, freedom from torture, etc.
    • All people in South Africa were eligible to vote for a legislature
    • 1994 Elections- Resulted in a multi-party legislature, Nelson Mandela became president
    • 1995 Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated murders and other human rights abuses under the apartheid government
    • 1999 Elections- Thabo Mbeki became president. Democratic advances were made.

• Geography:
  • Vietnam is in southeastern Asia, it borders China to the north and Cambodia to the west. To the south and east it is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean.
  • Korea is next to China and Japan. It is a peninsula which extends southward.
  • Indonesia is in southeastern Asia and is an archipelago between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
• Terrace Framing- a series of step-like benches supported by either sod or stone walls.
• Monsoons- seasonal winds that occur every summer in southern Asia.
• Mongol Empire
  • Asian empire that stretched across all of Asia
  • covered Korea, China, Russia, the Middle East, and India
  • Began in 1206
  • Genghis Khan was the ruler of the Mongols
  • Genghis Khan unified the Mongol people
  • Kublai Khan (the grandson of Genghis Khan) became the ruler after Genghis died
  • Kublai continued the conquest of China
  • After Kublai died, the empire fell apart
• Korean War:
  • caused by the division of Korea into North and South Korea
  • China and North Korea v. South Korea, US, Britain, Canada, Australia
  • Ended in an agreement on July 27, 1953
• Kurds:
  • a Middle Eastern minority group that lives in South west Asia.
    • most are Sunni Muslims
• Tamils- south Indian peoples and their languages.
• Sikhs-A religion combining the practices and beliefs of Hinduism and Islam.
• Nationalism of Cambodia
  • Pol Pot was the dictator of Cambodia between 1975 and 1998
  • He was responsible for the deaths of 1.5 million Cambodians
  • Khmer Rouge was a Cambodian communist group led by Pol Pot
• Vietnam War
  
  • in the 1950's the US started to send troops to Vietnam to fight against communism which was taking over Vietnam
• Ho Chi Minh- a nationalist and a communist in Vietnam
  • practiced guerrilla warfare to beat the French and the US in the Korean War

• Geography
  • Isolationism
  • The main focus during Mongol rule was becoming a great military land power, and most people had very little concern for naval developments. After Mongol rule in China, leaders were eager to restore pure Chinese culture, therefore outlawing large trade-ships from leaving the country.
• Ethnocentrism
  • It has been shown throughout history, that the Chinese have a distinct nationalism and ethnocentrism. They have often shown that they feel that their nation is superior as well as their culture (i.e. Policies of Isolationism).
  • River Valleys
  • Huang River/ Yellow River
  • Origination of the Chinese people began in this river valley.
  • Called the “Yellow River” because it often floods and deposits significant amounts of yellow silt. This is the most dangerous river in the area.
• Confucianism
  
  • Confucious lived during the Chou dynasty: a time of social disorder and chaos. He therefore believed that solving these problems would only come about by instating social order and mutual respect for all, explained by the five relationships.
  • No teaching of God or life after death.
  • Code of Conduct
  • The Five Relationships
    • Husband to wife, parent to child, brother to younger brother, Ruler to Minister/subject and friend to friend.
• Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) Golden Age
  • Emperor Han
    • Established Confucianism as official religion
    • Established Civil service exams (required for participation in government).
  • Silk Road
    • Opened up new trade routes. Brought the introduction of new foods, and led to contact between China and regions of the Middle East.
    • Got its name from China’s most abundant export: silk.
  • Accomplishments
    • Advancement in Sciences/Medicine: Acupuncture, zoology, botany, astronomy, chemistry, and architecture.
    • Introduced: rudder, paper, fishing reel, and wheelbarrow.
• Tang Dynasty (618 CE – 907 CE) Golden Age
  • Leaders expanded influence into areas like Central and Southeast Asia, and demanded tribute from them.
  • Redistribution of land for peasants. Confucist scholars began to work for the government.
  • Strict social structure imposed: Gentry, Peasants, and Merchants. (Highest in social structure à lowest in social structure). Unlike European social structures, social mobility was very possible and not uncommon.
  • Scientists invented: gunpowder, mechanical clocks, block printing and vaccines, towards the end of the dynasty.
• Opium Wars
  • The Chinese considered themselves the “Middle Kingdom” (the belief that they were at the center of the world). They thought that Europeans wanted to trade their worthless trinkets for priceless Chinese pieces. To set off this imbalance, Britain introduced opium into Chinese society.
  • The Chinese government attempted to stop the British from trading opium with the Chinese, but ultimately failed.
• Unequal treaties (19c)
  • Because of the Treaty of Nanjing, the Chinese were required to:
    • Pay reparations to Britain.
    • Open ports for British trade, breaking their isolationism policy.
    • Provide Britain of control of Hong Kong.
    • Allow British citizens living in China to live under British law and be tried in British courts, only.
  • This led other European nations to follow, and also establish unequal treaties with China for their own economic benefit.
    • Spheres of Influence were established by Western European countries in China, which bothered the Chinese and led to a series of uprisings.
• Boxer Rebellion (1900)
  • The people of China rose up against the foreign influences in their country. The European countries saw this as a threat to their profits, so they formed a coalition and put down the rebellion.
• Revolution of 1911
  • Causes:
    • Social Discontent
    • Government Inefficiency (Manchu Court).
    • Dissatisfaction with Constitutional Movement.
    • Acceptance of revolutionary ideas by intellectuals.
    • Wuhan Uprising – successful.
    • Strong military positions, strong armed force, little government resistance, support from wealthy merchants.
    • Results:
    • New Provisional Government: Sun Yat-Sen / Sun Yixian is elected President.
• Sun Yat-Sen
  • Nationalist leader, fought to end foreign domination.
  • Formed Nationalist Party and overthrew the Manchu Dynasty.
  • Replaced Manchu Dynasty with a republican government and was elected president of the Chinese Republic and New Provisional Government.
• Communist victory (1949)
  • Communists (led by Mao Zedong) defeated Kuomingdang (Nationalist Party led by Chang Kai-shek in the Chinese civil war
  • Communists now in control of mainland China
  • Nationalist party in charge of Taiwan and some islands
  • Communists supported by Soviet Union; Taiwan supported by US
  • Mao proclaimed People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949
• Mao Zedong (1893-1976)
  • Leader of the Communist party in China and won the civil war against the Nationalist party
  • Created unified China without foreign domination
  • Initiated Great Leap Forward and started the Cultural Revolution
  • Chairman of the People’s Republic of China
  • Disliked criticism of the government (anti-rightist movement)
• Communes
  • China separated into large communes during the Great Leap Forward
  • Contained about 5000 families
  • Everything owned by the commune; worked for commune, not for self
  • Everything was provided there: entertainment, health care, schools, etc.
  • Every aspect of life was controlled by the commune
• Great Leap Forward
  • Initiated by Mao to help economic growth
  • Collectivized agriculture and small industry in rural areas
  • Failed because of droughts (caused famine that killed millions of Chinese) and Soviet Union stopped supporting it (felt Mao was pushing too hard to a communist revolution
• Cultural Revolution (1966-1969)
  • Encouraged revolutionary committees of Red Guards to take power from the state and Communist party authorities
  • Believed in purging of intellectuals and imperialists, carried out mostly by Red Guards
  • Against religion: mosques, temples, churches burned
  • Labeled many “counterrevolutionaries” and purged; also great leaders such as Deng Xiaoping
• Deng Xiaoping and economic reforms
  • Reformed and opened up economy (foreign investments) à socialist market economy
  • Believe in the Four Modernizations: agriculture, industry, science and technology, and military
  • Signed agreement with the UK that Hong Kong would return to China in 1997
  • Four Modernizations: agriculture, industry, science and technology, and military
  • Legal reform; laws passed in National People’s Congress
• Tiananmen Square and human rights
  • Demonstrated at Tiananmen Sqare on June 4,1989
  • Student and intellectuals protest against slow reforming
  • Wanted end to corruption in the government
  • Wanted rights given in the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China
  • Deng declared martial law on May 20th
  • Military came in with weapons to clear demonstrators from the stree
  • Resulted in high numbers of students going overseas because countries gave political refuge
• MFN status and the WTO
  • In 1971, PRC was finally accepted by the Security Council of the UN (Taiwan had be the china accepted before)
  • Most of the United States’ trading partners have MFN statue (renamed Normal Trade Relations)
  • All pay same tariffs when enter US
  • Bilateral trade relationship that allows each country to have the most advantageous trade agreement with the other country
  • Promotes free trade
• Economic growth
  • Recent economic growth astounding
  • Average of 7.9 GDP growth per year
  • Capital rose 10% in 2000
  • Trade increased 18% in 2002

Periodization-
Ancient Greece—Archaic Greece: 1650 BC-700 BC
“Hellenic” (classical) Greece: 700 BC-324 BC
“Hellenistic” Greece: 324 BC-100 BC

Ancient Rome—Roman Republic-
509 BC-27BC
Civil War and Dictators: 200 BC-45 BC
Pax Romana (Peace of Rome):27 BC-140 AD
Empire in Crisis: 3rd century

Middle Ages—
Early Middle Ages: 500-1000
High Middle Ages: 1000-1250
Late Middle Ages: 1250-5000

• Roman Law: There was a definite law code created in the Roman states.  The 12 Tables displayed the laws of Rome, providing political and social rights for plebeians.  There was also a government in Rome consisting of 2 consuls, a senate and a tribal assembly.Athens vs. Sparta:  These were the two most powerful city-states of Greece.  Athens was the more cultural of the city-states and had a strong navy, while Sparta was known for the strength of their land militarily and the strength of their soldiers.
• The “Golden Age” of Pericles: (460 BC-429 BC) This was the peak of the strength of the cultural and military power of Athens.  During this time period there are many philosophers, including Socrates (“Know Thyself”) and Plato.  This is also the time of the drama and many new advances in science, including Pythagoras, Democritus and Hippocrates.  This is also when the Parthenon was built.
• Byzantine Empire: This empire was formed after the decline of Rome.  This empire codifies Rome Law (Corpus Juris Civiles), thus preserving these laws and much of the cultures of Rome and Greece.
• Feudalism: This was a system during the Middle Ages where the vassal pledges loyalty and service to a lord in return for land and protection.  In this system and during the Middle Ages there was a strict road to knighthood and a life of prestige, which was a pageàsquireàknight
• Manorialism: This was another system during the Middle Ages in which peasants land tenure was recorded, and local justice and taxation was administered.
• Crusades: (1096-1204) Military campaigns and pilgrimages by European Christians to win the Holey Land from the Muslims.
• Italian Renaissance: A “rebirth of culture” following the Middle Ages, where there was a new movement named humanism and a new importance placed on the individual.  There was many important artists including Leonardo De Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.
• Humanism: A new belief created and inspiring the Italian Renaissance, which was a belief in the importance of the individual, the idea that humans can accomplish great things without regard to religious factors.  Humanism also emphasized worldly items rather than religious ones.
• Machiavelli: wrote the book The Prince during the Renaissance and created a Machiavellian way to be a leader.  In this way of ruling moral and religion is disregarded and you do anything to remain in power.
• Italian Trade: Because Italy was centrally located in the Mediterranean Sea the country was able to trade with many different cultures.  This made Italy a wealthy place, and the home of the Renaissance.
• Commercial Revolution: Beginning during the 15th century a growth in economic trading.  There was a growth of trade within Western Europe and across the Atlantic Ocean.  This is the time where the systems of mercantilism and capitalism develop.
• Treaty of Tordesillas: (1494) The treaty that was made to prevent fighting between the Portuguese and Spanish, the first two countries of explore and colonize land, on territorial claims.  Spain obtained all of the Americas except for Brazil, which was given to Portugal.
• Reformation: A movement against the Catholic Church starting during the 14th century following the church abusing their powers (example: indulgences).  This movement questioned the Catholic churches principles and practices, and was led by Luther, Zwingli and Calvin.  There was also a Catholic/counter reformation, reaffirming the churches doctrine and creating the Jesuits.
• Martin Luther: Leader of the Reformation and founder of Lutheranism.  In 1517 he put up the 95 Theses, beginning the Reformation, which proclaimed all of the problems with the Catholic Church.  Luther placed an importance on the bible, and all people being able to read the bible.
• Peter the Great: (1685-1725) monarch of Russia who was an absolutist ruler.  His goal was to westernize Russia, to make the country like the rest of Europe, and to modernize Russia.   He encouraged new industries, a civil service, and built St. Petersburg (“The Window to the West”).
• Mercantilism: a system of economy created during the time of the Commercial Revolution.  This system wanted colonies, as a place to get raw materials and to sell the countries goods, tariffs were placed on imported goods to promote industries, and a countries goal was to have more exports than imports.
• Divine Right Monarchy:  The idea that God has given a ruler the right to rule.  This theory led to the Age of Absolutism.  An example of an absolutist rule is Louis XIV (the sun king) in France.
• Parliamentary system in Britain: The Parliament in Britain has always had power over the king.  In Britain the king has never had absolute power, starting with the Magna Carta limiting the kings powers, and the Great Council, which led to the creation of Parliament.
• Enlightenment: a.k.a. the “age of reason” was an intellectual movement during the 17th and 18th centuries.  It was sparked by the Scientific Revolution and encouraged people to question everything.  Writers of the enlightenment, all French, were Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot.
• Locke: a major writer during the enlightenment who believed that humans have three main rights “Life, Liberty and Land” and when these rights are taken away people have the right to rebel against their government.
• Rousseu: wrote The Social Contract, which stated citizens coming together can end inequality among people and agreeing to a general will.  The government should carry out the general will.

Jomo Kenyatta (Africa)

• Nationalist who after WWII demanded from Britain independence and a self-government
• Became president of first the Kenya African Union (KAU)
• Became the first prime minister then the first president of Kenya in 1964

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (Turkey)

• Founded the Republic of Turkey and was its first president
• Modernized the country
• Social and political rights
• Made the country secular
• Industrialized Turkey

Gamal Abdul Nasser (Egypt)

• Was a revolutionary who was able to successfully take part in overthrowing the existing government
• 1956, he was elected president of Egypt
• Lessened relations with the West
• Nationalized the Suez Canal
• Created internal reforms
• Had a major involvement in the Six Day War (against Israel)
• Resigned, due to taking responsibility to the war

Anwar Sadat (Egypt)

• Elected president of Egypt, 1970
• Launched the Arab-Israeli War of 1973
• Promoted and worked towards peace into the Middle East
• First Arab leader to recognize the existence of Israel

Mao Zedong (China)

• A Communist leader of China
• In 1949 he declared the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC)
• Held strict/oppressive communist reforms once he gained power
• Very pro peasant and farmer and agriculture, wants to give more power to the peasants and farmers
• 1958, Great Leap Forward - Extreme industrial and agricultural production
• 1966, Cultural Revolution - A period of social unrest and political persecution. Many of the acts were carried out by the Red Guard, who was comprised mainly of Chinese youth.

Mohatma Gandhi (India)

• India nationalist leader
• Established India's independence from Britain through passive resistance (non-violent revolution)
• Held civil-disobedient campaigns against the British
• Led boycotts against British goods

Toussaint L'Ouverture (Haiti)

• 1791, held a black slave uprising against the French colonies in Haiti
• 1801, succeeded in gaining independence from French control
• Became the first president of the new republic
• Under Napoleon troops were sent to Haiti were Toussaint was defeated and captured. He was then sent to France where he was imprisoned and soon after died.

Niccolo Machiavelli (Italy)

• The Prince, how a ruler should rule their country
• Human nature - men are wicked, greedy, liars
• "Is better to be feared then to be loved"
• Reputation and image are very important
• Pragmatic
• Lion and Fox
• Worked under the Medici family

Karl Marx

• Communist Manifesto and Das Capital
• All of history is a class conflict
• Final Class struggle
• "Haves" (Bourgeois) vs. "Have nots" (Proletarians)
• Proletarians wind up winning the class struggle
• Violent revolution is the only way to overthrow the Bourgeois
• Must occur in an already industrialized country
• Proletarians wind up owning the means of production, no more privet ownership
• Classless society
• Capitalism is doomed

Martin Luther

• Began the Protestant reformation, Lutheranism
• 95 Thesis
• Salivation by faith alone
• Clergy can marry
• Against the peasant revolts
• Only two Sacraments
• Baptism and Eucharist

Mansa Musa

• King of the Mali empire in Africa
• Large gold deposits in the Mali empire
• Made a pilgrimage it Mecca from 1324 to 1325
• Replaced by the Songhai Empire

Simon Bolivar (Latin America)

• A revolutionary and military leader also a politician, who had a major role in the wars for South American independence
• Responsible for the independence of: Venezuela, Columbia, Equador, Peru and Bolivia
• Never accomplished his goal of creating a federation of Spanish American nations

Jose de San Martin (Latin America)

• Fought for South American independence
• He was able to gain independence for Chile and secure the independence of Peru
• At some points worked alongside Simon Bolivar

Den Xiaoping (China)

• Chinese communist leader
• Ruled China after Mao Zedong
• Main goal to stabilize and strengthen China through the use of communist rule
• Four Modernizations - Agriculture, industry, military and science/technology
• Created rapid economic development through his programs
• Tiananmen Square Protests - Held by students who protested for a democracy in China, Deng reaction to the situation wound up massacring the protesters

John Locke

• Social contract
• Three basic rights: "Life, liberty and property"
• People born with a clean slate
• Can overthrow/change style of the government if it infringes on the three basic rights

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Social contract
• Conflict between majority rule and individual rights
• General will
• Realizes human emotion —> intellectual founding father of Romanticism
• Emile
• Children should not be forced to learn

Peter the Great (Russia)

• Built St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia
• "European Tour"
• Machiavellian ruler
• Reforms
• Separate church from the state
• "Window to the West"
• Iconoclast, challenges old institutions
• Heavy taxes
• Military expansion
• Reorganizes the bureaucracy
• Business infrastructure disappears after his death

Indira Gandhi (India)

• Prime minister of India from 1966 to 1977 and from 1980 to 1984
• After a War between East and West Pakistan, East Pakistan declared its independence as Bangladesh and many Bengalis fled to India. Gandhi tried to get international help but was unsuccessful. India then went to war with East Pakistan (Bangladesh), East Pakistan surrendered and became an independent country, Bangladesh.
• Gandhi was declared of minor election fraud and forced to resign in her 1971 campaign. However, before final appeals she declared a state of emergency in India. All civil rights were suspended and many people became imprisoned.
• During her 21 months of emergency rule, she created programs to help with economics and reduce inflation.
• Sent hundreds of troops to remove Sikh and other terrorist from India, where hundreds of people were killed.
• 1984, She was assassinated by two of her Sikh body guards

Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)

• Woman Prime Minister
• Removed in office in 1996

Jawaharlal Nehru (India)

• Largest democracy in the world
• First Prime minister
• Devoted to modernization of country
• 1949, war broke out between India and Pakistan over control of Kashmir

Ayatollah Khomeini (Iran)

• Conservative Islamic leader, exiled
• Banned western influences, restored traditional Islamic value and law
• Seized U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 69 hostages
• Shi’a sect of Islam, got in war with Saddam Hussein

Sun Yat-sen (China)*

• Fought to establish a Republic of China
• Three major principles (nationalism, democracy and socialism)
• Became temporary president of the Chinese Republic

Bernardo O’Higgins (L. America)

• Joined by San Martin in Chile in 1816
• Freed Chile in 1818
• Became the first President of Chile-resigned 6 years later

Zheng He (China)

• Ming dynasty-Emperor Yongle used Zhen He
• Seven overseas expeditions (1405-1423)
• Largest expeditionary forces in Indian Ocean for century
• Explored Southern Asia, Persia, Arabia and Eastern coast of Africa

Ibn Battutu (Middle East/Africa)

• Muslim traveler, tour of countries in Islamic World
• Admired splendor of Timbuktu and lack of crime

Pol Pot (Cambodia)

• Leader of Communists known as the Khmer Rouge
• Attempted to transform Cambodia into an agricultural society-killed ½ million
• 1978, Vietnamese overthrew the Khmer Rouge-dominated Cambodia until 1989

V.I. Lenin (Russia)

• Arrived in Petrograd in April 1917, led Bolshevik army
• Placed control of factories in the hands of workers and ordered redistribution of farmland among peasants
• Signed treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which withdrew Russia from WWI
• Announced NEP (New Economic Policy) allowing a small capitalist market

Joseph Stalin (Russia)

• Established a Totalitarian state in Russia
• Used secret police-Great Purge (Stalin executed anyone who opposed him)
• Created government sponsored youth groups-controlled newspapers, radios and motion pictures
• Command economy-imposed first Five-year plan to increase production
• Collectivized farming
• Woman worked alongside men in factories and public works-Levels of schooling under government control

Boris Yeltsin (Russia)

• Elected Yeltsin as the first elected president of the Russian Republic
• Formed the Commonwealth of Independent States, or CIS
• Lowered trade restrictions, ended subsidies to government-constricted industries and ended price controls

Mikhail Gorbachev (Russia)

• Favored policies that would bring reforms to the Soviet Union
• Policy of Glasnost, or openness, encouraged Soviets to share opinions on how to improve
• Perestroika, restructuring of the economy…allowed partial capitalism
• Democratization- new elections led open elections
• Foreign policy favored arms control
• Encouraged other Communist rules to reform their countries

Nelson Mandela (South America)

• Leader of the ANC (African National Congress)
• F.W. de Clark legalized ANC and released Nelson Mandela (imprisoned)
• 1994, Nelson Mandela elected president and a majority for ANC in the National Assembly

Fidel Castro (Cuba)

• 1959, Castro overthrew U.S. backed Batista
• At first, he made improvements in economy, healthcare and conditions for women
• Later showed himself a dictator who cancelled elections, imposed censorship and imprisoned/executed his opponents

Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam)

• Sought aid from Communists and led several revolts
• Geneva Conference-Vietnam split on 17th parallel-North (Ho Chi Minh and Communists) and South (democracy)
• Redistribution program garnered popular support in worth

Adolf Hitler (Germany)

• Goals to prevent communism and reverse terms of Treaty of Versailles
• Wrote “Mein Kampf”, which outlined his goals for Germany-create master race “Aryans”
• Revived economy promoting industrialization and constructing public works
• Kristallnacht-Nazi’s attacked Jews in their homes and in streets and destroyed Jewish business
• Brought troops to Rhineland, unification of Austria and Germany, Sudetenland, Czech and then attacked Poland
• Created Blitzkrieg

Matthew Perry (US/Japan)

• 1853 sailed into Edo Harbor (Now Tokyo) to break Japanese isolationism
• Brokered the Treaty of Kanagawa-allowed U.S. use two Japanese ports

Emperor Meiji (Japan)

• Under Meiji, began to become and international industrial and military power
• Gained the throne through the Meiji Restoration
• They organized a modern army and navy, created a system of public education, promoted industrial development, and built modern systems of transportation and communication.
• Won wars against China in 1895 and Russia in 1905. In 1910, Japan made Korea a colony.

• Geography: The Indus River Valley Civilization depended on the unpredictable flooding of the Indus and Ganges Rivers.  Fertile plains allowed for prosperity.  Monsoons (seasonal winds sometimes accompanied with heavy rain).  The Hindu Kush Mountains provided protection as well as isolation.
  • Major cities were Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.  Cities were centralized and grid-like. They had plumbing, sewage systems and were built from oven baked bricks.
• Akbar (1542-1605) was said to be the ‘true’ founder of the Mughal empire.  He took the throne at the age of 13 and one of his first policies (which lead to his success) was to rule with generosity, tolerance and force.  In doing so, he accepted the Hindu culture, which was a step not taken by his predecessors, hindering their triumph.   In his reign, Akbar established an efficient administrative system that held the empire together and stimulated trade and economic development.
• Gupta Dynasty (4c – 6c) In their Golden Age (under Chandra Gupta II) the majority of the people living there were farmers and merchants.  Trade with other cultures was the major point of success and the reason of success.  Part of this was from the cultural diffusion. With it came new religions, such as Buddhism.  There were achievements in art, math and astronomy: 1 year > 365 days, Lunar Calander and Pi.
• Sepoy Rebellion:  While the British controlled India as one of its colonies, they employed many Hindu’s and Muslims in their military.  Rumors began circulating that the cartridges for their rifles were made with the fat of cows, which are sacred to Hindus, and pigs, which Muslims believe are unclean. Consequently, any Hindu or Muslim soldier would be breaking a tradition when he bit off the end of a cartridge (Which was necessary before loading the rifle). There were several groups of soldiers uprising in the army refusing to use these cartridges.  But when the issue exploded in Meerut, 85 soldiers refused to use the cartridges.  They were convicted of mutiny, sentenced to prison terms, publicly fettered, and stripped of their military insignia.  This harsh treatment of their comrades made even more soldiers revolt, eventually causing a nationwide rebellion.  After a year of combat, the British subdued the rebels and the war ended in 1859.
• Independence (Post WWII): The new Labor government in Britain decided that the time to end British rule of India had come, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.  As independence approached and Hindus and Muslims continued to fight and kill each other, Gandhi once again put his belief in nonviolence into play. He went on his own to a Muslim-majority area of Bengal, placing himself as a hostage for the safety of Muslims living among Hindus in western Bengal. With the British army unable to deal with the threat of mounting violence, it was decided to advance the schedule of the transfer of power, leaving just months for the parties to agree on a formula for independence. Finally in June 1947 Congress and Muslim League leaders, against Gandhi's wishes, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines, with predominantly Hindu areas allocated to India and predominantly Muslim areas to Pakistan.
• Nehru, Jawaharlal (1889-1964) Indian nationalist leader and statesman who was the first prime minister of independent India and a leader of the Nonaligned Movement during the Cold War.  That was, a loose association of countries that, during the Cold War, had no formal commitment to either of the two power blocs.  As neutral countries, they took neither the side of the United States nor that of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
• Monsoons: Very strong seasonal winds that often carry heavy rains.
• Caste system: Rigid social class system. Little mobility is allowed amongst social classes and the classes are maintained generation after generation.
• Hinduism: A religion that is practiced by most of the people living in India. Followers believe in Dharma and Karma and that a person must devote their life to prayer in their quest to be released from this world and end the cycle of rebirths.
• British Colonialism: British East India Company first started to colonize India under the mandate of the Queen Elizabeth I in the 1600s. The British took over all governmental operations in India and developed the country. They also took many natural resources from the nations and treated the inhabitants unfairly to the point where the people rose up against the government.
• Mahatma Gandhi: The leader of the Indian movement for self government. Through nonviolent protest Gandhi campaigned against British colonialism in India and gained large support amongst other Indians. Satyagraha was when Gandhi led a mass protest in which many Indian people marched barefoot to the sea to make salt out of evaporated ocean water. This was a protest against the tax on salt by the British government. Gandhi was in favor of religious unity and wanted a government that would fairly take care of all the citizens of the nation.
• Partition: The Muslims wanted to partition the subcontinent and create their own separate state.
• Green Revolution: Government sponsored high yielding crops being planted all throughout India. Over time this helped in raising the agricultural production of the nation.
• Conflicts with Pakistan: Throughout their histories, Pakistan and India have been enemies. They are very competitive and resent each other because of differences in religious beliefs. Both India and Pakistan claim all of Kashmir. When the partition between India and Pakistan was first formed, Kashmir was alone. The Muslim population within Kashmir wanted to become part of Pakistan so the Pakistani government invaded the region. As a result the ruler of Kashmir signed an Instrument of Accession to the Indian Union.

• Geography
  • Used selective borrowing from China.
    • Confucianism
    • Japanese students sent to China to study religion, philosophy, art architecture and government
    • Writing system à Japanese adapted writing system to fit their own language.
  • Because of lack of natural resources, traded a lot with China and Koreaà land is very mountainous (about 73%), volcanic activity and occasional earthquakes don’t make it very suitable for farming.
• Ethnic Homogeneity- there has always been very little diversity in Japan.
  • Tokugawa Era (1600-1868)
  • Tokugawa was most powerful shogunate (feudal, military, dictatorship)
  • Based on a strict class hierarchy (see Japanese feudalism)
  • Semi Golden age- flourishing of arts and entertainment
  • For most of the time- isolated from outside
  • Poor harvests, harsh lords and military and decrease in personal freedoms and commercial development led to dissatisfaction among people
  • In 1868, several daimyos overthrew the emperor, ending the Tokugawa period and beginning the Meiji restoration.
• Japanese feudalism-
  • Emperoràshogunàdaimyoàsamuraiàartisansà peasants
  • Daimyo were the most powerful feudal rulers from the 12th- 19th c.
  • Feudal system present in Japan until 1868
• Bushido and Shintoism
  • Bushido- “the way of the warrior”, the samurai honor and moral code
  • Shintoism
    • Based on animism- worship of things in nature
    • Once the original religion, but now is a minority religion.
• Matthew Perry- opened the formally isolated Japan to western trade, imperialism and diplomacy in 1854
• Meiji Restoration- 1868-1912
  • Wanted to modernize at least enough to compete with other western nations
  • Built modern industries (coal mines, textile mills, shipyards, etc.)
  • Sold industries to private companies- became private enterprises
  • Modernized the military- took advice from European military experts, built naval shipyards, etc. and former samurai took charge of military
  • 1889- Japans first constitutionà peoples power still extremely limited
  • reorganized society- removed barriers that prevented people from getting jobs they wanted
  • women still greatly discriminated against
• Imperialist Period- beginning in 1895
  • Taiwan (1895), Korea (1910) and Manchuria (part of it in 1905 from Russo-Japanese war) were it’s initial targets to expand it’s empire
  • WWI gave Japan an opportunity to enlarge empire- was on Britains side
• Post WWII – occupied by the US. Occupation ends August 28,1952
  • Constitution- 1946- allied occupation draw up a new constitution
    • Emperor loses almost all real power and becomes merely a symbol of the state
    • Citizens rights increase dramatically
    • Two part legislature decide laws
    • Prime minister (chosen by a majority vote in the legislature) becomes the head of the government
  • Economic policies- American occupation
    • redistribute farmland
    • legalize labor unions
    • give women and children greater rights
• Balance of trade
  • Ministry of International Trade and Industry form

geography:

• Much of Brazil is made up of low mountains and plateaus. These occupy two-thirds of Brazil.  Forested lowlands basically cover the rest.  There are thousands of rivers of which the largest are the Amazon, Parana, and Sao Francisco.
• Panama Canal – the Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, it was built in 1914 by the U.S. and extends 50 miles across the Isthmus of Panama. It uses a system of locks that move ships from one level to another.
• Terrace Farming - Terrace farming is building a series of bench-like steps usually supported by sod or stone walls; these were used to slow down erosion because it changes the way that the water runs off the edge of the hill. This was important because it allowed civilizations who could not do conventional farming before, able to support large populations.

pre-Colombian societies:

• Mayans: Established a civilization in Central America and Southern Mexico.250 – 900 was their peak. Architecture, painting, pottery, etc. Worshiped many Gods, corn was the main food, traded with other cultures in Latin America. Used a form of hieroglyphics, polytheistic
• Aztecs: Empire in Mexico during the 1400s and 1500s. It was the most advance civilization in the Americas. In the early 1500s Hernando Cortez conquered them, there were bloody battles, polytheistic
• Incas: Height from the mid 1530s to the early 1500s. Empire in present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Conquered by military force and ruled them with a complex political system. Known for managing its great size very well and had a system of roads.

influence of Spain:

• The first Spanish colony was founded in 1510 and it was reported that there was great wealth there. Throughout Spain’s conquering they killed many Native Americans.
• Vasco de Balboa, Popes line of demarcation, Treaty of Tordesillas,

influence of the Catholic Church:

• The early Portuguese and Spanish explorers brought Catholicism to Latin America and converted many of them. In present day about eighty percent of the Lain Americans are Roman Catholic.
• Bartolome de las Casas – fought for the good treatment of natives.

mercantilism:

• Exports many agricultural and mineral products
• Coffee, bananas, copper, and petroleum

encomienda system:

• The encomienda system was a system that gave conquistadors the power to tax and use the people in the land given to them for labor. The conquistadors were meant to provide protection for the people on his land but usually they enslaved the entire population and gave nothing back to them.

colonial class system:

• Peninsulares- Sent to completely control Latin American colonies.
• Creoles- American born Spaniards, they had no political rights.
• Mestizos- Spanish and Native American descent, denied all political, economic, and social rights.
• Mulattoes- Spanish and African descent, denied all political, economic, and social rights.
• Native Americans and Slaves- Lowest class, often treated poorly and used as labor by the land owning Creoles.

significance of the slave trade:

• Many natives died from disease and the rest were enslaved, so the Europeans brought over slaves to offset the decline in population. These African slaves worked mostly on the sugar plantations of Brazil and the Caribbean.

wealthy landowners:

• Usually members of the Creoles, American born Spaniards, who owned most of the land. The native slaves and the African slaves often were laborers on their plantations.

influence of the French Revolution on the 19c revolutions in Latin America

• showed revolutionaries that it was possible to have a rebellion that eventually lead to success
• violent methods weren’t necessarily as successful
• successful revolutions needed cooperation between the lower and middle classes

independence movements

• Simon Bolivar—led military forces, freed Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru
• Toussaint L’Ouverture---freed Haiti and liberated slaves
• Bernardo O’Higgins---freed Chili, became supreme dictator
• Jose San Martin---freed Argentina

influence of the U.S. (“Colossus of the North”)

• still play a role today in domestic and foreign policy

liberation theology

• freedom after colonization
• unique identity and culture from nationalism

Cuban Revolution (1959)

• Communist revolution against dictator Fulgencio Batista
• Lead by Che Guevaraànow famous for his rebellion

Fidel Castro

• current dictator of Cuba
• took over after revolution      
• Soviet influence (Cuba missile crisis)

Haitiàeco. and pol. Problems

• can’t get off its feet
• still recovering from past colonization          
• rulers switch, violent coups

Cuba in the 1990s (post-Cold War)

• still Communist dictatorship
• more liberties without Soviet dominance
• still ruled by Castro

increasing democracy in the 1990s

• no more Communist influence from Soviet Union   
• greater reforms and U.S. imposing democracy on some countries

NAFTA

• North American Free Trade Agreement
• gradual removal of tariffs and trade barriers

Geography

• Ancient river valleys such as Mesopotamia à land between Tigris and Euphrates (Sumer)
• Sahara Desert à largest desert in the world, encompasses much of northern Africa
• Suez Canal à very important economic presence and trade route between Mediterranean Sea (Europe) and Red Sea (Asia, Africa, etc.), runs through northeast Egypt, finally completed in 1869
• Dardanelles Straits à 28 mile long strait between Europe and Asiatic Turkey
• Peninsulas à Arabian Peninsula, Sinai Peninsula, etc
• Oilà main export of middle east, contains around 65% of world’s oil reserves

Islam

• Koran: the holy book of Islam, thought by Muslims to be the word of Allah
• Five Pillars: 1) shahada- or confessing their faith 2) salat- or performing 5 prayers a day 3) saum- or fasting during the month of Ramadan 4) zakat-or paying of the alms tax 5) hajj- or a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s life
• Golden Age of Muslim Culture: period of time when Muslims excelled in math and science
  • algebra
  • concept of zero
  • also saved hundreds of years of history by preserving historical texts and documents
• Ottoman Empire: now modern Turkey, an empire founded in 13th century, at it’s height expanded all the way from Balkan Peninsula to Middle East and North Africa after reign of Suleiman I
  • after Suleiman’s death power of empire slowly declined
• Mustafa Kemal Ataturk: “Ataturk” means “father of Turks”
  • as leader, he went through a series of reforms
  • abolished caliphate (symbol of the power of religious sultans), introduced western ideas, removed constitutional provision naming Islam as state religion

  Balfour Declaration: (1916-17) letter expressing British government’s approval of Zionism with establishment in Palestine of national home for Jewish people
• Islamic Fundamentalism: a religious and/or political belief of strict adherence to the Koran, often as the connotation of Islamic fundamentalist terrorist groups
• Revolution in Iran: the White Revolution
  • led by Reza Shah Pahlavi – including land reforms, extension of women’s voting rights, and elimination of illiteracy
• Ayatollah Khomeini: leader of religious opposition to the shah—who was trying to westernize and modernize Iran and create a secular govt.
  • wanted to create an Islamic state again
• modernizers: Shah of Iran (1925-41), Nasser (1956-70)
  • Reza Shah Pahlavi wanted to westernize Iran and secularize government
  • Nasser known for leading Egyptian nationalist movement, removing monarchy from power and installing a republic
• Arab-Israeli conflict: long-standing conflict between Arabs and Jews over the control of historic Palestine, including many wars (Six-Day War of 1967 and (Arab-Israeli War of 1973)
• Camp David Accords: an attempt at peace over Arab-Israeli conflict in Middle East between Begin (Israeli prime minister) and al-Sadat (Jimmy Carter was there) – Israel is recognized
• Civil War in Lebanon [1970’s and 1980’s]: caused by many factors, mainly because of the rival religious groups in Lebanon (esp. Christians and Muslims). This and other domestic tensions, made worse by foreign influences, erupted into civil war from 1975-1990.
• Muslim World: a journal published internationally which research on Muslim societies and current aspects of Christian-Muslim relations
• Operation Desert Storm: multinational invasion of Kuwait which removed Iraqi troops from Kuwait and gave it back to the Kuwaiti government
• Oslo Accords: (1993) secret negotiations in Oslo, Norway – set stage for a gradual transfer of power to the Palestinians during the Arab-Israeli conflict

Islam
-Translates to: surrender or submission
-Ancient Monotheistic religion: Allah
-Basic Islamic Beliefs: Angels, Prophets, and Day of Judgment

Koran
-Muslim Holy Book
-Revelations given to Muhammad in the period 610- 632
-Eventually written down and converted into modern Arabic (with vowels)

Five Pillars
-Foundation of Islam, followed by all Muslims
-Faith: oneness of God and finality of Muhammad
-Daily Prayer
-Almsgiving to the needy
-Self-purification: fasting
-Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime

Hegira (622 AD= 1 AH)
-The departure of the prophet Muhammad from Mecca
-He was forced to flee from his enemies
-Muhammad went to Yathrib (Medina), where he became ruler.
-Every Muslim, at least once in his/her life, makes a pilgrimage to Mecca

Judaism
-Ancient monotheistic religion: God or Adonai (Yaweh)
-Abraham: father of Judaism

Ten Commandments
-God exists
-No other deity exists
-Do not take the Lord’s name in vain
-Observe Shabbat (day of rest)
-Respect elders
-Do not murder
-Do not commit adultery
-Do not steal
-Do not lie
-Do not covet others possessions

Torah
-Jewish holy book: generally considered the Five Books of Moses:
-Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
-Sometimes also considered to be the entire Old Testament:
-Nevi’im (The Prophets) and Kethuvim (The Writings)
-On scrolls (used in prayer): written entirely in Hebrew by hand
-Talmud: Oral Torah

Diaspora
-Started with Babylonian Exile (700 BCE)
-Also settled on the Arabian Peninsula and in Egypt.
- Jews banned from living in Jerusalem and Judea. (66-135 CE)
-Zionism (creation of a Jewish homeland) -> 1948, Israel is founded

Shintoism
-“The Way of the Gods”
-Ame-no-mi-naka-nushi: the Absolute Universal Self (their “God”)
-Two Sects:
-Sectarian Shinto
-The State Shinto Religion: national religion of Japan
-Emperor is regarded as direct descendant and representative of Ame-no-mi-naka-nushi

Bushido
-“Way of the Warrior”
- A code for Samurai warriors, not unlike the chivalry and codes of the European knights. -loyalty, self-sacrifice, justice, purity, frugality, martial spirit, honor and affection
- Influenced by: Buddhism, Zen, Confucianism, and Shintoism

• Mongol Domination -early to mid 1200’s, they introduce “oriental despotism” to Russia, and during this period Moscow grows and flourishes.
• Peter the Great – ruled from 1696 t0 1725, during which time he initiated many internal reforms in order to westernize Russia. He defeated the Swedes in the battle of Poltava and is responsible for building St. Petersberg
• Tsarist Russia – the Romanovs ruled as tsars of Russia from 1613 to the Russian Revolution of 1917. They exercised complete power
• Catherine the Great – ruled from 1762 to 1796. She is considered to be an enlightened monarch because of her internal reforms, which she later abolished in order to please the nobility
• Russian Revolution of 1917 – the Tsarist regime is overthrown and Kerensky and the Provisional government rule. It was unpopular and ultimately failed due to the governments staying in WWI
• Bolshevik Revolution – 1917 Lenin and the Bolsheviks overthrow the Provisional government. They take Rusiia out of WWI. A civil war breaks out between the Bolshevik Red army and the White army, which consisted of the Lenin’s political enemies. The Red army wins.
• Communism – a form of government in which there is no social distinction and the government controls all of the economy. Karl Marx is credited with being the father of Communism
• Lenin – planned and led the Bolshevik revolution and led communist Russia until 1924. He created the New Economic Policy to rebuild agriculture and industry
• April Theses – The theses stated the Bolshevik’s views toward the provisional government and Lenin’s plan for governing Russia
• Joseph Stalin – Rules after Lenin and is responsible for the five year plans. He further centralized the government and initiated the Great Purges
• Five-Year Plans - Plans to rapidly modernize Russian industry and collectivize farmland
• Influence on Eastern Europe – After WWII most Eastern European countries are satellite states to the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact troops put down all anti communist revolutions
• Warsaw Pact – military pact like NATO except for Eastern Europe
• Command economy – An economy where the government controls all industry and there is one central source making all of the decisions. The government decides the price, type and quantity of all things that are manufactured. NO private ownership.
• Afghanistan – Russians invaded Afghanistan in 1979, it was like a Russian version of the Vietnam War, the costs of the war further crippled the Russian economy
• Collapse of USSR 1990-1991 – The communist regimes of Russia and the other Eastern European Nations crumble
• Gorbachev – initiated internal reforms. He is responsible for Glasnost and Perestroika. He abandoned the Brezhnev doctrine, allowing Eastern European countries to become democracies without Russian interference
• Perestroika – restructuring, with respect to the economy and decentralizing of government
• Glasnost – openness and truth with respect to current and previous problems of the government
• Boris Yeltsin – Leads Russia after Gorbachev. He is the first elected leader of Russia and its first president. In 1991 he fought a coup to overthrow the government and was thought of as a hero for saving Russia from the renewal of tyranny and the Cold War.