safety rules  

• no eating, drinking, or smoking in the laboratory
• broken glass must be disposed in the glass disposal box (to be only used for broken glass)
• inform instructor immediately if anyone is cut or injured
• mercury from broken thermometers should only be cleaned up by the instructor w/ a mercury cleaning kit
• be careful w/ glassware, never try to force glass pipettes into the pump
• wear close toed shoes
• know where to find emergency equipment
• report anything that appears hazardous to the instructor
• don't bring children to the lab

prefixes of metric system  

• Giga (G) - 109
• Mega (M) - 106
• Kilo (k) - 103
• Deci (d) - 10-1
• Centi (c) - 10-2
• Milli (m) - 10-3
• Micro (µa) - 10-6
• Nano (n) - 10-9
• Pico (p) - 10-12
• Femto (f) - 10-15

Parts of Light Microscope (aka compound microscope)  

• Oculars - lens that you look through
• Body Tube - metal casing through which light passes to the oculars
• Arm - where you should hold the microscope when holding it
• Coarse focus adjustment - should only be used w/ 4x or 10x objectives
• Fine focus adjustment - used w/ powerful magnifications
• Nosepiece - holds the objectives
• Objectives - lenses mounted on the nosepiece
• Stage - where the specimen is placed
• Condenser - allows light onto the specimen
• Iris diaphragm - ring that can be opened/closed to allow light in
• Condenser Adjustment - used to manipulate the iris diaphragm
• Lamp - light source
• Base - bottom of the microscope

Preparing a wet mount  

• place drop of water on clean microscopic slide
• place coverslip on at 45 degree angle
• slowly cover the drop so that no air bubbles remain

Focusing the microscope  

• use lowest power objective first
• use coarse adjustment
• change to higher objectives
• only use fine adjustive w/ high objectives
• parafocal - stays in focus after changing objectives
• parcaentered - stays centered after changing objectives
• field of view - area that you can see through the microscope
• wet mount - glass slide containing specimen, usually in water

Finding total magnification and field of view  

• total magnification = objective's magnification x ocular magnification
• diameter under low power x low magnification = diameter under high power x high magnification
• area = pi x radius2

Dissecting Microscope (aka stereoscopic microscope)  

• more working distance than light microscope
• light from either top or bottom
• only 1 objective

cytology - study of cellular structure/function  

• uses light microscopy, electron microscopy, cell chemistry

prokaryotes - no nucleus or organelles  

• organelles - structures of macromolecules w/ special functions
• cytoplasm - liquid inside the plasma membrane
• cell wall - surrounds the membrane, covered by a gelatinous capsule
• appendages - flagella/pili; used for mov't and attachment
• ribosomes - used for protein synthesis
• mesosomes - internal extensions of membrane
• chromatin bodies - DNA concentrations

Cyanobacteria - largest prokaryotes  

• aka blue-green algae
• thylakoids - green pigments for chloroplasts
• mucilaginous sheath - surrounds cyanobacteria

eukaryotes - contain nuclei and organelles  

• chloroplasts - where photosynthesis takes place; chlorophyll pigment gives it its green color
• mitochondria - where aerobic respiration takes place; folds inward to form critae (where respiration enzymes are located)
• protoplast - collective name for all material/organelles within the membrane

plant cells  

• cellulose - carboyhydrate material in plant cell walls
• central vacuole - contains mostly water, held together by cauolar membrane; takes up 90% of cell
• nucleolus - dense, dark spot in the nucleus
• cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis) - mov't of chloroplasts due to cytoplasm
• primary cell wall - outer part of cell wall
• middle lamella - substance holding adjacent cell walls together
• plasmodesmata - cytoplasmic strands penetrating the cell walls; links the protoplasms of adjacent cells

plastids - organelles where food is made  

• mitochondria/chloroplasts are examples
• amyloplasts - plastids that store starch; stains darkly w/ iodine

animal cells  

• epithelial cells - from inner surface of mouth
• have mitochondria in place of chloroplasts

protists - kingdom of eukaryotic, single-celled organisms  

• amoeba - irregularly shaped protist
  • move w/ amoeboid mov't, using pseudopodia (temporary cell protrusions)
  • surrounds food particles to digest
  • contractile vacuole - gathers, expels water/waste
• paramecium
  • gullet - where food enters
  • micro/macronucleus
  • cilia - hair-like appendages, used for mov't

organic compounds - macromolecules made of subunits in living organisms  

• carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
• dehydration synthesis - water molecule removed to bond 2 subunits
• hydrolysis - exothermic reaction where water is added to break bonds between subunits
• different structures and arrangments give compounds different characteristics

controlled experiments - has controls used for comparison  

• unknown solution - may or may not contain the substance that is being tested for
• positive control - contains the substance that is being tested for; shows what a positive test should look like
• negative control - doesn't react in the test; shows what a negative result should look like

carbohydrates - molecules made of C, H, and O in ratio 1:2:1  

• monosaccharides - simple sugars
• disaccharides - paired monosaccharides
• polysaccharides - linking together 3 or more monosaccharides
• reducing sugars - monosaccharides that have free adlehyde (-CHO) or ketone (-C=O) groups that reduce weak oxidizing agents
• Benedict's test - identifies reducing sugars that can reduce the cupric ions in Benedict's reagent into cuprous oxide
• iodine test - iodine-potassium iodide reacts w/ coiled molecules of starch to become bluish black; doesn't react w/ other carbohydrates as much

proteins - made of amino acids  

• each amino acid has amino group, carboxyl group, and variable side chain
• peptide bond - forms between amino group and carboxyl group of 2 amino acids
• Biuret test - peptide bonds of proteins produce a violet color when in contact w/ the copper II found in Biuret reagent; individual amino acids do not react

lipids - nonpolar molecules w/ many C-H bonds  

• dissolve in nonpolar solvents
• fats (triglycerides) - made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
• tests based on lipid's ability to change color w/ fat-soluble dyes (ex. Sudan IV)
• grease-spot test - lipids produce translucent grease-marks on unglazed paper

nucleic acids - made of nucleotide subunits  

• either DNA or RNA (differences in sugar structure and organic bases)
• Dische diphenylamine test - makes deoxyribose into another molecule that bonds w/ diphenylamine to make a blue color

Brownian movement - random mov't of molecules in biological systems

• occurs due to collisions between molecules
• molecules' mov't can't directly be seen, but mov't after collisions can be seen

diffusion - directional mov't of molecules down a gradient

• from areas of high concentration, heat, pressure to areas of low concentration, heat, pressure
• rate determined by steepness of gradient and characteristics of the molecules
• temperature/pressure usually constant in most biological systems
• selective (differentiable) permeability - ability of cell membranes to decide what moleules can pass through it; selects based on size, charge, solubility
• polar molecules - positive/negative charged areas
• nonpolar molecules - no local areas of charge
• small nonpolar molecules pass through the membrane most easily
• dialysis - separation of dissolved substances by using their unequal diffusions

osmosis - diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane

• follows rules of diffusion, except w/ water
• hypotonic - solution w/ lower solute concentration than surrounding environment
• hypertonic - solution w/ higher solute concentration than surrounding environment
• isotonic - 2 solutions w/ equal solute concentration
• water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic areas
• even in isotonic solutions, water still moves, but concentrations stay the same

water potential - effects of concentration/pressure from cell walls

• increased by high water concentration/pressure
• decreased by high solute concentration, low pressure
• water flows from areas of high water potential to areas of low water potential

lysis - destruction of cell by influx of water

• animal cells lack cell walls, bursts more easily than plant cells
• hemolysis - lysis of red blood cells
• crenation - shriveling of cells
• plasmolysis - shrinking of plant cytoplasm, where cell membrane pulls away from cell wall in plants

cellular respiration - oxidation of organic molecules, release of energy

• C6H12O6 + 6O2 >> 6 CO2 + 6H2O + ATP + heat
• usually organic molecules taken in, CO2/H2O released as waste
• adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - used as direct source of energy in cellular metabolism
• glycolysis - oxidation of glucose to pyruvate
  • some energy stored in ATP
  • occurs w/ or w/o oxygen, but doesn't continue to citric acid cycle w/o oxygen
• citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle or Krebs cycle)
  • oxidizes pyruvate to CO2
  • must use oxygen
  • used by aerobes
  • stores energy in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
• electron transport chain - makes proton gradients from energy in NAD
  • makes about 18x as much ATP as glycolysis
  • oxygen - final electron acceptor; chain won't work w/o oxygen
  • measuring O2 consumption/ CO2 production also measures the aerobic respiration rate

anaerobes - live w/o oxygen; may even be poisoned by oxygen

• use inorganic electron acceptors
• uses fermentation instead of Krebs cycle to reduce pyruvate
  • makes ethanol in plants/yeast
  • makes lactic acid in animals
• C6H12O6>> 2C2H5OH (ethanol) + 2CO2 + ATP + heat
• C6H12O6>> 2CH3CHOHCOOH + ATP + heat
• produces 18 fewer ATP than aerobic respiration
• pickling - preserves food, involves anaerobic fermentation of sugars to lactic acid
• wine making - invovles alcoholic fermentation by yeasts

photosynthesis - converts radiant energy to chemical energy

• 6CO2 + 12H2O >> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
• dependent on light and chlorophyll
• oxygen released into environment; sugar used for growth or storage
• reactant/product water molecules are different
• chloroplast - organelle for photosynthesis
  • thylakoids - photosynthetic membranes
  • grana - stacks of thylakoids
  • lamellae - holds grana in place
  • stroma - semiliquid in chloroplasts
• photochemical (light) reactions -
  • splits water to release O2, electrons, protons
  • almost at instantaneous speed
  • light-dependent
• biochemical (dark) reactions (Calvin cycle) -
  • converts CO2 to sugar
  • fast, but slower than photochemical reaction
  • light-independent

paper chromatography - separates dissolved compounds

• pigment - substance that absorbs light
  • primary photosynthetic pigments - chlorphyll a/b
  • accessory pigments - also absorb light; ex. carotene, xanthophyll
• different mov't of pigments on paper due to solubility and tendencies to stick
• pigments strongly absorbed move slowly
• pigments weakly absorbed move faster
• Rf = distance moved by pigment / distance from pigment origin to solvent front

spectroscope - instrument that separates white light into component colors

• placing chlorophyll between light/spectroscope blocks out light absorbed by chlorophyll

fluorescence - release of light energy

• light only produces reactions when absorbed by a molecule
• chlorophyll appears green because it absorbs all other light wavelengths
• light excites the electrons, bossting them to a higher energy level

enzymes - proteins that control most reactions in cells

• biocatalysts - speeds up metabolic reactions to biologically useful rates
• lowers activation energy needed for reaction to start
• substrate - reacting molecules that binds to the enzyme to make enzyme-substrate complex
  • active site - where substrate attaches to the enzyme
• provides energy of activation to form the transition state (making substrate more reactive)
• completes reaction when product formed, enzyme goes back to original shape
• structure/shape determines enzyme’s function
• denaturation - structural change to enzyme, can destroy its effectiveness
• optimal conditions - the environmental conditions under which the enzyme works the best
• phosphate-carrying molecules like ATP turn enzymes on/off through phosphorylation

effect of temperature on enzyme activity

• heat usually increases rate of most chemical reactions (puts energy into the system)
• extreme temperatures may denature enzymes

catechol oxidase - plant enzyme converting catechol to benzoquinone

• benzoquinone responsible for brown color in bruised fruit
• catechol >> catechol oxidase >> benzoquinone
• no reaction if either catechol oxidase or catechol missing
• low temperatures >> slower reaction
• moderately high temperatures (about 40° C) >> fast reaction
• extremely high temperatures (about 80° C) >> denatured enzyme, no reaction

effect of pH on enzyme activity

• H+ and OH- groups from acids/bases react w/ side groups of enzyme molecules
• lower pH >> more H+ ions
• higher pH >> more OH- ions
• can change enzyme shape enough to change active site

catalase - enzyme in plants/animals, speeds up hydrogen peroxide breakdown

• 2 H2O2>> catalase >> 2 H2O + O2
• no reaction if either catalase or hydrogen peroxide missing
• works best in neutral pH
• adding acid/base/buffer can change the pH

effect of inhibitors on enzyme activity  

• competitive inhibition - inhibitors that compete for the same active site as a substrate
  • makes enzyme unavailable for substrate
• can also bond to allosteric site and shut off enzyme

cell cycle - all the activities in a cell

• begins w/ formation of new cell, ends w/ cell replication
• mitosis - replication/division of nucleus in a eukaryotic cell
  • rarely occurs in bone/neuron cells
• cytokinesis - division of cell/cytoplasm
  • doesn't take place in multinucleated cells like striated muscle fibers, algal filaments
• interphase - G1, S, G2 phases
  • G1 phase - majority of cellular activity
  • S phase - DNA replicated, produces identical pairs of chromatids attached at the centromere
  • G2 phase - structures for mitosis made

mitosis - separates genetic material, makes nucleus for each set of DNA

• prophase - mitotic spindle forms between centrioles
  • kinetochore fibers attach to kinetochore protein disk on centromere
  • aster - microtubules radiating from the centriole to brace it
• metaphase - chromosomes align in cell's center
• anaphase - sister chromatids separate
• telophase - mitotic apparatus disassembles

mitosis in animal cells - asters form w/ centrioles at the center

• cleavage furrow - forms during cytokinesis, pinches cell in 2
• embryos offer most examples of mitosis

mitosis in plant cells - no asters, centrioles

• meristems - areas of rapid cell division at root tips
• cell plate - separation that forms perpendicular to axis of spindle apparatus, grows out to periphery

meiosis - aka "reduction division"

• makes haploid daughter nuclei
• diploid - chromosomes coming in pairs (normal in eukaryotic nuclei)
• homologous chromosomes - chromosomes in a pair
  • loci - sites for a gene, same in both homologous chromosomes
• haploid - only 1 chromosome in each pair found (normal in gametes)
• 2 rounds of chromosomal separation, 1 round of DNA replication
• synapsis - pairing of homologous chromosomes
  • alleles - homologous segments of genetic material, gets exchanged when chromosomes paired up
  • crossing-over - creates new genetic combination
  • no gain/loss of genetic material
• meiosis I - homologous chromosomes split
• meiosis II - chromatids split

gametogenesis - formation of gametes

• gamete - reproductive cells w/ haploid nuclei
• spermatogenesis - formation of sperm
  • occurs in testes (made of seminiferous tubules)
  • spermatogonia - diploid cells in tubules that constantly divide mitotically
  • primary spermatocytes - cells that move toward lumen and start meiosis
  • secondary spermatocytes - produced by meiosis I of primary spermatocyte, has haploid set of double-stranded chromosomes
  • spermatids - produced by meiosis II of secondary spermatocytes, matures into sperm cells
• oogenesis - formation of egg
  • occurs in ovaries of females
  • oocyte - cells in ovary that produces female gametes
  • eggs not produced continually, only during early fetal development
  • primary oocytes - about 2 million initially created, start meiosis I but stop in prophase I
  • follicular cells - surround oocytes to form follicules
  • hormones stimulate growth of 1 or 2 follicles per month after puberty
  • ovulation - release of oocyte from ovary, after oocyte completes meiosis I to produce secondary oocyte and polar body (eventually disintegrates)
  • Graafian follicle - mature follicle containing secondary oocyte
  • meiosis II (only after sperm penetrates egg) creates polar body and haploid egg cell ready for fertilization (nuclei fusion)
  • corpus luteum - formed by remaining follicle cells, prepares the uterus for fertilized egg w/ hormones

plant gametogenesis - plants have alternation of generations between haploid/diploid  

• meiosis occurs in anthers/ovary of flowers
• anther creates spores (pollen) that eventually produce male gametes
• ovary creates spores (ovule) that eventually produce female gametes

Mendelian genetics - particulate (instead of blending) theory of inheritance

• inherited characters determined by genes
• genes occur in pairs (from maternal/paternal homologous chromosomes)
• Law of Segregation - only 1 chromosome from each pair found in gametes
• Law of Independent Assortment - genes on different chromosomes distributed randomly into gametes
• gene - unit of heredity on chromosomes
• allele - alternate states of genes, contributed from parents
• dominant alleles - masks expression of other alleles (designated by capital letter)
• recessive alleles - expression masked by dominant alleles (designated by lower-case letter)
• genotype - all alleles present in the cell
• phenotype - physical appearance of a trait
• homozygous - when paired alleles are identical
• heterozygous - when paired alleles are different

types of inheritance

• simple dominance - certain allele completely dominant over another
• incomplete dominance - heterozygous genotype results in mixed characteristic
  • red/white flowers create pink flowers when cross-bred
• lethal inheritance - inherits gene that kills offspring
  • albino seedlings cannot photosynthesize, eventually die
• codominance - evident in blood types
  • 4 blood types - A, B, AB, O; determined by antigens (proteins) on surface of cells
  • A blood - has A antigens, antibodies against B blood cells
  • B blood - has B antigens, antibodies against A blood cells
  • AB blood - has A/B antigens, no antibodies
  • O blood - has antibodies against A/B blood, no antigens

human traits - many determined by just single gene

• widow's peak - pointed hairline dominant over straight hairline
• bent little finger - little finger bends toward 4th finger (dominant)
• albinism - lack pigment in skin (recessive)
• pigmented iris - pigments (dominant) hides blue/gray color of iris back layer
• attached earlobes - free earlobes dominant over attached earlobes
• hitchhiker's thumb - last joint of thumb bends back over 60 degrees (recessive)
• interlacing fingers - crossing left thumb over right dominant over crossing right over left
• PTC tasting - ability to taste bitterness dominant over inability
• mid-digital hair - hair on middle segment of fingers (dominant)

human diseases -

• cystic fibrosis - chronic bronchial obstruction, growth reduction
• galactosemia - can't metabolize galactose in human milk (autosomal recessive)
• phenylketonuria (PKU) - inability to metabolize phenylalanine, leads to mental retardation
• Huntington's disease - uncontrollable, involuntary muscle movements
• occurs late in life, often gets passed on to offspring
• juvenile retinoblastoma - cancer of retina

transposons - fragments of DNA that can move in chromosome

• useful in genetic engineering
• can insert foreign DNA into chromosome

evolution - genetic change in populations  

• mutation - changes in genetic message of cell
• fitness - organism’s tendency to produce more offspring
  • individuals w/ better genes more able to survive, pass down genes
• natural selection - environmental conditions determine the characteristics of a population
• major force that guides formation of new species, genetic change
• frequency - proportion of individuals w/ a certain trait relative to total number of individuals

Hardy-Weinberg principle - used to calculate/predict allelic frequencies

• based on data for 1 or 2 frequencies
• p = frequency of dominant allele
• q = frequency of recessive allele
• p + q = 1
• p2 + 2 pq + q2 = 1
• assumptions - large population, random mating, no mutations, no migration, no selection pressure

selection pressures - factors that affect organisms, lead to selective reproduction 

• selection - differential reproduction of phenotypes
  • certain phenotypes passed down more often than others
  • positive selection - genotypes for adaptive traits increase in frequency
  • negative selection - genotypes for nonadaptive traits decrease in frequency
• can totally eliminate a certain trait from the entire population

properties of life - fundamental qualities of all living organisms

• cellular organization
• sensitivity
• growth/metabolism
• reproduction/heredity
• regulation/homeostasis

taxonomy - science of classification/nomenclature for living things

• 3 purposes
  • identifies known species
  • names/classifies new species
  • shows evolutionary relationships between species
• organisms grouped according to phylogeny and binomial names

phylogenetic systems - evolutionary tree diagrams showing the lineage of each organism

• shows how organisms are related through course of evolution
• branching = divergence of species
• upper branches = recently evolved/diverged species
• lower branches = older, more primitive species
• breaks animals up into 3 domains (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya)
• domain >> kingdom >> phylum >> class >> order >> family >> genus >> species

binomial nomenclature - based on work of Carolus Linnaeus

• genus - group of closely related organisms
• species - type of organism
• names in Latin
• capitalize genus name, don’t capitalize species name
• underline name when handwritten, italicize when typed

Porifera - “to bear pores”

• level of organization - multicellular w/ specialization, but no tissues
• body symmetry - asymmetrical
• alimentary structures - no extracellular digestion, only phagocytosis
  • filter feeds
• reproduction - both sexual/asexual
  • asexual reproduction - budding, gemmule release
  • sexual reproduction - amoebocytes become gametes
• spicules - crystalline skeletal structures in sponge wall
• spongocoel - central cavity in sponge
• porocytes - forms the pores in sponge
• choanocytes - flagellated cells that draw water through the pores
• not plants due to lack of photosynthesis
• Grantia - simplest sponges
  • sessile, filter-feeding
• Spongia - more complex arrangement of chambers than Grantia

Cnidaria - “stinging cells”

• level of organization - diploblastic (2 cell layers), tissues but no organs
• body symmetry - radial symmetry
• alimentary structures - 1-hole sac plan (same hole used as mouth/anus)
  • digestion in gastrovascular cavity
• cnidocytes w/ nematocysts to sting prey
• polymorphism - ability to change body shape
  • polyp - mostly stationary
  • medusa - free-swimming
• Class Hydrozoa - dominant polyp stage
  • Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia)
• Class Scyphozoa - dominant medusa stage
  • “true jellyfish”
• Class Anthozoa - no medusa stage, usually in colonies
  • corals - makes skeleton of calcium carbonate
  • Metridium - commone anemone, has tentacles sticking out like hair
• reproduction - both sexual/asexual
  • asexual reproduction - budding, fragmentation
  • sexual reproduction - medusa release sperm and eggs that become planula larva, which attaches to substrate to become polyp

Platyhelminthes - triploblastic (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm)

• level of organization - organs, no organ systems
• body symmetry - bilateral
• alimentary structures - 1-hole sac gut, no digestive cavity
• acoelomate - lacking body cavity (no fluid-filled space involving mesoderm)
• Class Turbellaria - flatworms, aka “Planaria”
  • mostly found in freshwater
  • eyespots - light-sensitive pigmented cups
  • simple nervous system
  • pharynx in middle of body leads to branched gastrovascular cavity
  • extracellular/intracellular digestion in gastrovascular cavity
  • hermaphroditic but not self fertilizing
  • asexual reproduction through regeneration
• Class Tremetoda - parasitic flukes
  • can live inside/outside of hosts
  • no epidermis, covered in epicuticle
  • attaches to host w/ suckers, nutrients absorbed directly
  • mostly hermaphroditic, can self-fertilize, but some dioecious (separate male/female)
• Class Cestoda - tapeworms
  • mostly endoparasites (living inside host)
  • attaches to host w/ scolex
  • proglottid - segmented units, each is hermaphroditic; ones farthest away from scolex are largest, carry eggs
  • no epidermis, covered in epicuticle
  • nutrients absorbed directly (no digestive enzymes/cavity)
  • regeneration possible only if scolex still attached to host
  • tapeworms can self-fertilize

Nematoda - pseudocoelomates (have body cavity between mesoderm/endoderm)

• level of organization - organ systems
• body symmetry - bilateral
• alimentary structures - 2-hole sac gut
• holds internal organs
• triploblastic
• no flagella/cilia, covered in cuticle
• no circulatory system

Mollusca - soft-bodied 

• level of organization - organ systems
• body symmetry - bilateral symmetry
• alimentary structures - 2-hole tube
• triploblastic
• coelomate - contains fluid-filled space surrounded by mesoderm layer to hold organ systems
  • coelom isolated to area around heart in mollusks
  • not the same as digestive/mantle cavities
• mantle - specialized epidermal cells, can secrete shell
• visceral mass - organ systems, sensory structures
• open circulatory systems in all except Cephalopods
• gas exchange occurs in gills
• Class Polyplacophora - “many moving plates”
  • uses radula (horny tongue) to scrape food from rocks
  • dorsal shell divided into 8 plates
• Class Gastropoda - “stomach foot”
  • single, coiled shell produced in snails
  • no shells for slugs/nudibranchs
  • uses radula
• Class Bivalvia - “two doors/valves”
  • hinged shell for protection
  • sessile filter feeders
  • incurrent/excurrent siphon directs water through clam
• Class Cephalopoda - “head-foot”
  • shell internalized or lost
  • can alter shape/color for camouflage
  • hardened beak for crushing prey
  • tentacles w/ suckers to ensnare prey
  • most intelligent/advanced of invertebrates

Annelida - “ringed/segmented”

• level of organization - organ systems
• body symmetry - bilateral symmetry
• alimentary structures - 2-hole tube
• triploblastic, coelomate
• segmentation - divided into parts separated by septa
  • muscles can elongate/contract for locomotion
  • parts specialized for certain tasks
• closed circulatory system
• setae - small bristle-like appendages
• no gills/lungs, oxygen absorbed through moist body surfaces (cutaneous respiration)
• mouth >> pharynx >> esophagus >> crop >> gizzard >> intestine
• can only reproduce through cross-fertilization, even though it’s hermaphroditic
  • sperm exchanged through clitellum
• Class Polychaeta - “many setae”
  • well defined heads
  • can be venomous
  • active predator/scavenger
• Class Oligochaeta - “few/small setae”
  • earthworms, redworms, etc
• Class Hirudinea - leeches
  • secretes hirudin as anticoagulant
  • some live as ectoparasites

main characteristics - protostomes, largest animal phylum

• level of organization - organ systems
• body symmetry - bilateral
• alimentary structures - 2-hole tube
• triploblastic
• hemocoelomate - has blood cavity (hemocoel)
• chitin exoskeleton
  • shed/renewed as organisms grow
• jointed/paired appendages
• much segmentation
  • tagmosis - fusion of segments into functional units
• open circulatory system
• respiratory system w/ spiracles, tracheae, book lungs/gills
• sexual, dioecious reproduction (sometimes parthenogenic)

subphylum Chelicerata - have chelicerae for stinging, absorption of food

• pedipalps - used to sense surroundings (sort of like antennae)
• body segments - cephalothorax, abdomen
• book gills/lungs, tracheae
• Class Merostomata - Horseshoe crabs
• Class Arachnida - spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites

subphylum Crustacea - mandibles for chewing instead of chelicerae

• biramous - double-branched appendages
• compound eyes (multiple lenses)
• gills, book lungs
• 2 pair of antennae
• Class Malacostraca - shrimp, crabs, crayfish, krill
• Class Branchiopoda (water fleas), Copepoda (Copepods)

subphylum Uniramia - uniramous (single branch appendages) 

• mandibles
• 1 pair of antennae
• Class Chilopoda - centipedes
  • carnivores
  • 1 pair of legs per segment
• Class Diplopoda - millipedes
  • herbivores
  • 2 pairs of legs per segment
• Class Insecta (Hexapoda) - insects
  • 6 legs
  • head, thorax, abdomen
  • modified mouthparts

deuterostomes vs protostomes

• protostomes - Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda
  • spiral cell division
  • mesoderm forms near blastospore
  • blastospore >> mouth
  • determinate embryonic development - cell fate fixed early on
• deuterostomes - Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata
  • radial cell division
  • mesoderm forms opposite blastospore
  • blastospore >> anus
  • indeterminate embryonic development - cell fate fixed later in development

phylum Echinodermata - “spiny-skinned”

• level of organization - organ systems
• body symmetry - pentamerous (bilateral larvae, radial adults)
• alimentary structures - 2-hole tube
• triploblastic
• endoskeleton - ossicle bones on inside of organism
  • calcified bones, not chitin
• water vascular system - uses water to move
  • ring canal - surrounds center
  • five radial canals - 1 on each leg
  • madreporite - where water enters
  • ampulla - controls the tube feet that make the organism move
• papula - simple gills that project out into the water
• Class Asteroidea - sea stars
• Class Ophiuroidea - brittle stars, can move w/ legs like cephalopod instead of tube feet

phylum Chordata - “cord”

• level of organization - organ systems
• body symmetry - bilateral
• alimentary structures - 2-hole tube
• triploblastic
• has dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal slits, postanal tail
• subphylum Urochordata - tunicates, sea squirts
  • free-swimming larvae have chordate characteristics
  • sessile adults only keep the pharyngeal slits
• subphylum Cephalochordata - lancelets
• subphylum Vertebrata - notochord replaced by bone during development
  • contains fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
• Class Agnatha - “w/o jaws”
  • lampreys, hagfishes
  • no jaws, paired appendages
  • cartilaginous skeleton
• Class Chondrichthyes - “cartilaginous fish”
  • sharks, skates, rays
  • cartilaginous skeleton
  • placoid scales
• Class Osteichthyes - “bony fish”
  • gar, bass, coelacanth, perch, etc
  • most diverse vertebrate class
  • air/swim bladder
  • operculum - covers the gills
  • fins - caudal (tail), pectoral (sides), dorsal (top), pelvic (bottom), anal (bottom down, in front of caudal)
• Class Amphibia - “dual life”
  • frogs, toads, salamanders
  • lives on land, but must return to water for fertilization
• Class Reptilia - “to creep”
  • turtles, snakes, lizards
  • has dry skin w/ scales >> better suited for land
  • has amniotic land egg
• Class Aves - birds
  • feathers (replaced scales)
  • forelimbs >> wings
• Class Mammalia - “beast”
  • hair, body fat
  • mammary glands
  • diaphragm to force air into lungs

anatomical orientations -

• anterior - head end
• posterior - tail/hindmost end
• dorsal - back
• ventral - belly/underside
• medial - middle of body
• lateral - sides of body
• distal - away from point of attachment
• proximal - nearer to point of attachment

digestive system -

• glottis - opening from larynx into trachea
• epiglottis - tissue that closes off the glottis when food is swallowed
  • keeps food out of the respiratory tract
• mouth - where starch digestion begins
• esophagus - muscular tube that transports food
• stomach - physical/chemical digestion of proteins
• liver - produces bile to emulsify fats
  • largest internal organ
• jaundice - yellow staining of tissues due to blocked excretion of bile
• gallbladder - stores bile
• pancreas - secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine
• small intestine - primary chemical digestion, nutrient absorption
• cecum - pouch at beginning of large intestine
  • helps w/ cellulose digestion in herbivores
• large intestine - vitamin production/absorption
  • compacts waste
• anus - exit for waste products
• sphincter - ring of circular smooth muscle
  • prevents food from moving back through digestive tract
  • humans lack true sphincters

lymphatic system -

• thymus - around neck/heart
• spleen - filters dead blood cells
  • flap to the left of the stomach

urinary system -

• kidneys - filters blood, excretes nitrogenous waste
• nephron - functional unit of kidney
• ureters - passageway for urine from kidney to bladder
• bladder - stores urine
• urethra - connects bladder to outside

reproductive system -

• male reproductive parts
  • testes - gonad where sperm is created
  • epididymis - sperm storage site
  • ductus deferens (vas deferens) - tubes through which sperm travels to penis
  • seminal vesicle - secretes into semen
  • prostrate gland - secretes basic environment into semen
  • bulbourethral glands - secretes lubrication into semen
• female reproductive parts
  • ovaries - gonad where ova are created
  • fimbria - fingerlike projections that sweep ova into tube
  • oviducts (fallopian tubes) - where egg is fertilized
  • uterus - where fertilized egg implants
  • ectopic pregnancy - fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus
  • urogenital sinus - fusion of vagina, urethra
  • vagina - birth canal

circulatory system -

• arteries lead away from heart, veins lead toward heart
• pulmonary circulation - between heart and lungs
• systemic circulation - between heart and rest of body
• major arteries -
  • aorta - largest artery in body, carries blood from left ventricle
  • pulmonary artery - only artery to carry deoxygenated blood
  • common carotids - directs blood toward the head, along the trachea
  • subclavians - branches off from aortic arch towards upper body
  • branchiocephalic trunk - branches off from aortic arch, leads to carotids/subclavians
  • celiac artery - leads to stomach/pancreas
  • renal arteries - leads to kidneys
• major veins -
  • anterior (superior) vena cava - major vein connecting upper body and right atrium
  • posterior (inferior) vena cava - major vein connecting lower body and right atrium
  • internal/external jugulars - returns blood from head
  • branchiocephalic veins - returns blood from upper body
  • renal veins - returns blood from kidneys
• heart - 4 chambers
  • atria - receives blood from body/lungs
  • ventricles - pumps blood to body/lungs
  • atrioventricular valves - separates atria from ventricles
  • semilunar valves - separates ventricles from outside of heart
  • chordae tendonae - “heartstrings” that keep valve flaps closed >> prevents backflow

representative plants - split into 3 groups

• non-vascular plants - liverworts, mosses, hornworts
• vascular, non-seed plants - ferns, fern allies
• vascular, seed plants - gymnosperms, angiosperms

non-vascular plants - lack vascular tissue, true roots, stems, leaves

• rhizoids - root-like structures that anchor the plant
• antheridia - produces swimming sperm
• archegonia - produces eggs
• gametophyte = dominant generation
  • produces gametes through mitosis
• sporophyte = dependent generation
  • produces spores through meiosis

phylum Hepaticophyta - liverworts

• earliest known land plants
• gametophyte
  • thallus - leaf-like structure, flattened and bilaterally symmetrical
• asexual reproduction through fragmentation or gemmae production
• sexual reproduction within the archegonia
• sporophyte not capable of photosynthesis
  • must stay attached to the gametophyte

phylum Bryophyta - mosses

• gametophyte - radially symmetrical thallus
  • less water-dependent than liverwort
  • only 1-cell thick in most parts
• asexual reproduction through fragmentation only
• sexual reproduction similar to that of liverworts
• sporophyte - capsule extending on top of the moss
  • more prominent than in liverwort

anthocerophyta - hornworts

• archegonia imbedded in the thallus
• sporophyte - horn-shaped structure protruding from thallus

seedless vascular plants - all very similar to ferns

• sporophylls clustered to form strobili (cone-like structure)
• all have microphyll
• Lycophyta - club mosses
  • micropyll-covered stems (has single vein)
  • includes resurrection ferns
• Pterophyta - includes ferns, whisk ferns, scouring rush

gymnosperms - most contain seeds within cones

• heterosporous - microspores produced in male cones, megaspores created in female cones
• has microscopic gametophytes, completely dependent on sporophyte generation
• Cycadophyta - Cycades
  • resembles palm trees
  • evergreen, has cones/strobili
  • flagellated sperm
• Ginkgophyta - only 1 species (Ginkgo tree)
  • dioecious, doesn’t have cones
  • fan-shaped leaves
  • female tree seeds have buyric acid (has stench)
• Coniferophyta - conifers
  • largest gymnosperm phylum
  • microsporophyll - male cone, located near bottom of tree
  • megasporophyll - female cone, located at top of tree, bigger than male cone
  • resin duct - used for protection, storage, wound-healing
  • stoma - gas exchange
  • epidermis - for gas exchange, protection, prevents desiccation
  • chlorenchyma - photosynthetic cells
  • endodermis - regulates transport in/out of vascular cylinder
• Gnetophyta - most similar to angiosperms

characteristics of angiosperms - most successful/diverse plant phylum

• all have seeds in fruits
• dominant sporophyte, microscopic gametophyte
• divided into monocots/dicots
• dicots - less advanced than monocots
  • stem vascular bundles in ring
  • root vascular bundle in x-shape
  • taproot
  • netted veins in leaves
  • 2 cotyledons
• monocots - fibrous root in place of taproot
  • stem vascular bundle scattered
  • root vascular bundles in ring
  • parallel veins in leaves
  • single cotyledon

pollination/fertilization -

• pollen lands in sticky stigma
• tube nuclear creates pollen tube into ovary
• double fertilization creates zygote and endosperm
• embryo sac - gametophyte portion that holds the egg
• hilum - where ovule attaches to ovary
• micropyle - seed opening through which pollen tube grows

flower structure -

• peduncle - holds up the flower
• receptacle - at base of flower
• sepal/calyx - protects emerging bud
• petal/corolla - attracts pollinators
• androecium (stamen) - male reproductive structure
  • anther - produces the pollen
  • filament - holds up the anther
• gynoecium - female reproductive structure
  • stigma - receives pollen
  • style - connects stigma w/ ovary
  • ovary - makes the ovules

fruit structure - ripened ovaries

• contains seeds (mature ovules)
• can be dry or fleshy
• pericarp (exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp) and placental tissues

vegetative structures - roots, shoots, leaves

• roots - anchors plant in soil, absorbs water/minerals, stores carbohydrates
• shoots - supports plant, transports solutes/water, stores carbohydrates
• leaves - site for photosynthesis, area of gas exchange/transpiration

roots - 4 regions (root cap, apical meristem, elongation, maturation)

• amyloplasts - store carbohydrates
• xylem - transfers water/minerals
• phloem - transfers food
• pericycle - produces secondary roots

shoots (stem) - herbaceous in monocots, woody in dicots

• pith - center of stem used for food storage
• vascular cambium - responsible for secondary growth
• node - where leaf attaches to stem
• internode - space between nodes
• axillary bud - produces branch/flower
• terminal bud - contains apical meristem
• cutin - waxy, waterproof layer around epidermis
• periderm - minimizes water loss when epidermis ruptures
• lenticles - for gas exchange

leaves - made of blade and petiole

• phyllotaxis - arrangement of leaves
• palisade mesophyll - on top, main area of photosynthesis
• spongy mesophyll - on bottom, contains most of the stomata