Traditional historical analysis understands the outbreak of WWI as connected to the broad European culture that existed between 1870 and 1914
- Specifically: Militarism, Imperialism, Nationalism and Alliances
- More recent work has focused on the role of the mass media, authoritarian leadership, technology and industrialization
The Three Emperors League
- 1873 Bismarck joined Germany / Austria-Hungary / Russia joined
- Conservative powers
- Germany: eliminated two front war, challenged Eng. Naval power
- Austria-Hungary: Lack of industrial base, ethnic diversity
- Russia: Desire for warm water port on the Med. Sea
Ottoman Empire
- “Sick Man of Europe” – on the verge of collapse
o Fiscal and ethnic problems
- Eng. / Fr. Provided aid to prevent growth of Russian influence
o Wanted to maintain a weak Ottoman State
Balkans
- Ruled by a combination of Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire
o Serbs, Bosnia-Herzegovina clamoring for independence
Instability of Alliance System:
- Franco – German tension required that German keep on good terms with Russia
- English dependency on imports meant that they had to maintain naval superiority
o Increase in German naval power seen as a direct threat (Militarism)
- Balkans presented a challenge to the Three Emperors Alliance
o Competing interest b/w Austrian-Hungarian, Russia and Balkan ethnic groups created conflict
o Congress of Berlin 1878: Bismarck brokered a settlement between England, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire over the Balkans
§ A.H. gained control over Bosnia-Herzegovina
§ Serbian nationalism was abandoned by Russia
§ Ottomans kept Constantinople
§ Created a sharp division b/w Russia and Germany
- Dual Alliance: Strong alliance b/w Germany and Austria-Hungary in response to the weakening of Russian loyalty
o 1882 Italy joined the Dual Alliance = Triple Alliance
- 1885 Bulgaria and Serbia began another Balkan Crisis
o Created division and tension b/w Russia & Austria-Hungary
o Germany sided with Austria-Hungary, Russia backed down
o Bismarck crafted the Reinsurance Treaty in 1887 to patch up bad blood with Russia
- 1890 Bismarck left office, Russian alliance faded away
- 1894 Russia shifted alliance and joined France, 1907 Great Britain joined to make the Triple Entente
- 1908-1909 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina
- Slap in the face to Russia, they decide that they will not back down again
Imperialism:
- 1870-1914 brought with it a “new imperialism” characterized by industrialization, intensification and increased technology
- Technology:
o Steam ship
o Railroads
o Suez Canal / Panama Canal
o Guns
o Communication
o Medicine: Quinine
- Motives:
o Economic: Connected to the demand for natural resources for their industrial economies
o Nationalism
§ Greater sense of National prestige
§ Driven by mass media / newspapers
· Hobson, Psychology of Jingoism 1901: derided the use of “invented patriotism” to drive demand for war / conquest
§ Colonial territories used as bargaining chips by the Great Powers
o Geopolitics: Politics of geography
§ Strategic importance, fueling stations, trade routes, mineral resources
§ Led to a Naval arms race – drove heavy industry
- Patterns of Imperialism
o Direct v. Indirect Rule
o “the scramble for Africa” (1875-1912): Conquest of Africa (Direct Rule)
§ Driven by Mass Media
§ Personal glory, mineral resources, national prestige, pseudoscientific racism, recession in Euro.
§ Process had little Euro. To Euro. Conflict, but massacres were common
- Ethiopia as an exception:
o Gain access to modern weapons through the Italians to fight off other Europeans
o Then rejected the Italian claims of Ethiopia as a protectorate
o Defeated Italian forces at the Battle of Adowa
- Boer War: British fought Afrikaners for control of South Africa
o GB afraid the Afrikaners would ally with Germany
o Cecil Rhodes drove public opinion and support for the war
o Bloody difficult struggle, Afrikaners eventually surrendered, gained right to decide racial settlement – segregation began
- Scramble for Africa brought France, Germany and England into direct competition
- Imperialism in Asia
o India, center of British foreign policy
o Used indirect rule with a heavy British oversight
o China: Opium trade dominated English trade
o 1839 Chinese attempted to restrict opium sales
§ Opium War 1839-1842
§ Treaty of Nanking 1842
§ Honk Kong, several other ports
§ China forced to pay the cost of the war
§ Forced China to accept opium trade
- Boxer Rebellion: 1900 Peasant unrest turned into open rebellion, Europeans could not control population with limited forces
- Demonstrated the need for indirect rule
- Critiquing Capitalism:
- J.A. Hobson, Imperialism, A Study 1902
- Under consumption & surplus capital forced imperial expansion
- Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism 1916
- Capitalism is inherently driven to imperialism
- Hobson and Lenin provide an understanding of the connection b/w imperialism and domestic problems on the part of late 19th Century political philosophy
