1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Changes in Technology
   1. Navigational Changes
      1. Sternpost rudder – improved steering - Invented in China – Han Dynasty
      2. Lateen sails – sail in any direction regardless of wind
      3. Astrolabe – measured distance of sun/stars above horizon – latitude
      4. Magnetic Compass – Chinese – direction without sight of land
      5. Three-Masted Caravels – larger sails, large cargo rooms w/ more provisions
2. Global Interactions
   1. European colonization of Americas
      1. Why successful?
         1. Disease
            1. Indigenous people had no resistance – developed independently
         2. Neighboring states hated Aztecs, more than happy to help
         3. Fear of unknown – metal, horseback – seen as God
         4. Motivation – acquire gold and spices
         5. Superior weapons
         6. Individual assistance
            1. Malince (Dona Marina) acted as interpreter – Spanish>Aztec
      2. Early colonization
         1. Cortes – 1519 – Aztecs
            1. Tenochititlan – Mexico City – New Spain
            2. Conquistadors controlled Western USA – California, Arizona, etc…
         2. Pizarro – 1531 – Incas
         3. Goals
            1. Boost home countries’ power and wealth
            2. Exploitation and exploration of raw materials
            3. Spread of Roman Catholicism
            4. Labor system
            5. Attempted to use natives, but failed
               1. Resorted to importing labor from Africa
      3. Differences in empire expansion from earlier empires
         1. Existing populations wiped out not allowed to remain intact
         2. Huge numbers of people moved in
         3. Even Mongols didn’t totally replace population
         4. Previous empires merged with, converted, or were converted by existing population
         5. Americas – Europeans created new continent in own image – two Europes essenentially
      4. Labor/Economic System
         1. Hierarchical system
            1. Peninsulares – Spanish officials
            2. Creoles – born in colonies to Spanish parents
               1. Educated, wealthy
               2. Looked down upon by Spanish aristocracy
               3. Became leaders of resistance movements later
            3. Mestizos – European and Native American ancestry
            4. Mulattos – European and African ancestry
            5. Native Americans – little to no freedom
               1. Worked on estates, in mines
         2. Encomienda System – American Feudalism
            1. Peninsulares get land and # of slaves/native laborers
               1. In exchange, must protect them and convert them
         3. Attempts at reform
            1. Treatment horrific – Christian missionaries appealed for reform
            2. Reduced strain on natives by bringing in Africans
            3. Replaced one oppressed group with another
            4. Both Africans and Natives ended up at bottom of social hierarchy
      5. Difference methods of Colonization
         1. Spanish/Portuguese
            1. Resource extraction #1 priority
            2. Treatment of Native Americans harsh
               1. Until recently known as cruelest of colonizers
               2. Indians first as slaves, then exploited for cheap labor
               3. Kept near bottom of Latin American social scale
            3. Importation of African slaves massive
               1. More brought to Latin America/Caribbean than United States
                  1. Primarily brought over males
                  2. #s only kept up through importation, not reproduction
            4. Missionaries/priests – conversion to Catholicism a priority
            5. Settled presence of Spanish/Portuguese (large cities) created permanent colonies
         2. French
            1. Focused on economic exploitation
            2. Focused on fur trade
            3. Made little effort to create long-term settlements
               1. Only 11,000 settlers came from 1608-1763
               2. Attacks from British made it difficult to have long-term settlemensts
            4. Hunters, trappers, soldiers – remarkably adept at adapting selves to environment
               1. Knew woods, rivers of North America well
               2. Learned language of Native Americans – made alliances – Huron
         3. English
            1. Most encouraged long-term settlement
               1. viable, long-lasting colonies desirable
               2. Grew rapidly – men, women and children stayed
               3. Cities, communities grew
                  1. Strong systems of local government
            2. Colonists went to escape religious persecution
            3. Some colonists were convicts
            4. Greatest number indentured servants
               1. Worked for masters in exchange for payment of voyage over
            5. Used African slaves
               1. Tobacco/cotton growing southern settlements
            6. Initially, relationship with Indians relatively peaceful
               1. Relationship soured during French/Indian Wars
               2. Turned antagonistic violent after
                  1. But…violence always existed before too
   2. Columbian Exchange – most rapid and profound ecological transformations in world history
      1. New foods, animals, resources led to massive changes for both regions
      2. From Europe/Africa
         1. horses, pigs, goats, chili peppers, sugar cane, sheep
            1. Increased milk and meat supply in Americas
            2. Horse Provided labor and transport – horse
               1. Changed nature of Indians on the Plains
         2. Food – for the most part Americas uninterested in food crops
            1. wheat, olive trees, grapevines, coffee
            2. Coffee – grew well in Americas
         3. Christianity
         4. From Africa – food, cultural practices, religious beliefs
      3. From Americas
         1. Food
            1. Types
               1. squash, beans, corn, potatoes, cacoa (aka chocoloate)
               2. Maize and sweet potatoes to China and parts of Africa
               3. White potatoes to Europe
               4. Manioc to Africa
               5. Sugar cane cultivation transferred to Brazil/Caribbean
            2. Impact
               1. Boost population growth
         2. Dramatically shifted diet – Europe now getting different parts of food pyramid
            1. Vitamin rich tomatoes
            2. Sugar as luxury good
         3. Excellent source of cotton
      4. Diseases
         1. Mostly European diseases that killed Americans
            1. smallpox and measles
         2. Only disease thought to be brought back from natives is syphilis (not proven)
      5. Weapons
      6. People
         1. Forced – coercive – slavery, convicts
         2. By choice – colonists, religious persecution, exploration, indentured servitude
         3. DNA from different regions now mixed
      7. Altered biological and dietary realities for tens of millions of people
   3. European encounter with Americas – totally changed Americas
      1. Greater cultural interaction
      2. Movement of Europeans and Africans – forever altered North/South American ethnicity, religion, language, art, and music
   4. Triangular Trade Route
      1. Slaves from Africa on Middle Passage
         1. Before stolen and then taken to slave factories
         2. 13 > 20% died in route
            1. death from suicide, illness, thrown overboard for lack of supplies
         3. Only 5% went to N. America, most to Caribbean and South America
         4. Most N. American slaves first had spent some time in the West Indies
      2. Rum, sugar to Europe
      3. Manufactured goods – guns - to Africa

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Changes in Trade
   1. European Exploration
      1. Before late 15th century
         1. Trade restricted to land travel
         2. Ships used on Mediterranean and Indian Ocean
            1. But…linked to land routes
      2. Causes of exploration – interrelated factors converging on one continent at the same time
         1. Success of Hanseatic League
         2. Crusades spawned new, efficient trade routes
         3. Apply new technologies
            1. Sternpost rudder – improved steering - Invented in China – Han Dynasty
            2. Lateen sails – sail in any direction regardless of wind
            3. Astrolabe – measured distance of sun/stars above horizon – latitude
            4. Magnetic Compass – Chinese – direction without sight of land
               1. Lodestone from Chinese – magnetic – always points north
            5. Three-Masted Caravels – larger sails, large cargo rooms w/ more provisions
               1. Large ships can crest large waves without capsizing
            6. Better knowledge of stars
               1. Gained from Arabs
            7. Sextant – able to journey further without getting lost
            8. Gunpowder – 1500s and 1600s – huge gunships
               1. Sailors equipped with muskets, pistols, small artillery
               2. Gunpowder weapons at sea
               3. Explorers/conquerors could use against less technologically advanced nations
         4. Economic goals
            1. Fiercely competitive about trade routes
            2. Newly wealthy
            3. Access to luxury goods
               1. Silk, metal goods, spices, fruit, jewels, precious metals
            4. Need a direct route
               1. Tired of Middle East being middlemen
               2. Gain access, increase profits
         5. Political goals
            1. Increasingly organized under strong leaders
         6. New ideology
            1. Renaissance thinking looked externally not internally
            2. Renaissance thinking led to belief that man could affect destiny
         7. European visitors to Mongol court learned of Asian technology
            1. printing press
            2. gunpowder
            3. magnetic compass
         8. Marco Polo stories
         9. Rise of nation-states
            1. encouraged economic development
            2. created rivalry between nations for new territories and new wealth
         10. Renaissance ideals
             1. Sense of curiosity and adventure
         11. precedent of Italian merchants making money – Venice – want to get a piece of the action
      3. Early Exploring Nations – Iberian wave
         1. Why Portugal?
            1. Location
               1. Coast of Africa – strategic
               2. On Europe’s Atlantic frontier
            2. Trade relations with Muslim nations
            3. Royal family supported exploration
               1. Prince Henry the Navigator
                  1. Created maritime center/navigation school at port of Sagres
                  2. He and princes sent out voyage after voyage
            4. Maritime experience
               1. Mediterranean trade
               2. Long series of naval wars with Ottoman Turks
            5. Who? Famous Explorers
               1. Dias – Cape of Good Hope 1488
               2. Vasco de Gama – India, E. Africa 1497
                  1. Returns in 1499 filled with cargo
                     1. Returned 6000% of original investment
                        1. Hmmmm…guess what happens next?
               3. Ferdinand Magellan – Portuguese but traveling from Spain
                  1. Inspired by Vasco de Balboa – saw Panama canal
                     1. First European to see Pacific Ocean from new world
                  2. Dies in Philippines
                  3. His ships return to Europe in 1522 – first circumnavigation
            6. Strategy
               1. Explore Africa Coast – around and East
               2. Claimed several Atlantic island groups – Madeiras and Azores
            7. Colonization
               1. Far East and Southeast Asia – too strong/advanced to conquer
                  1. Settled for trading ports – Goa, Malacca, Sri Lanka
         2. Spain – Head west
            1. Distracted/delayed by Reconquista
               1. War against the Moors
               2. Not as quick as Portuguese
                  1. Would have to find option B, Portuguese already have Africa
            2. Columbus’s voyage
               1. Financed by Ferdinand and Isabella
               2. Earth a sphere, but size estimates incorrect
                  1. Columbus’s claims surprising not that it’s round – accepted idea
                     1. Proximity surprising
               3. 1492 – Cuba, W. Indies
                  1. Changed forever the history of the globe
               4. Mistaken all his life that he had found Indies – “Indians”
                  1. Portuguese/Spanish realized it was somewhere different
                     1. Amerigo Vespucci – mapped New World
            3. Colonization
               1. Started in Caribbean
                  1. Island bases on Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola (DR/Haiti)
         3. Treaty of Tordesillas – line of demarcation – Brazil vs. Rest
            1. W. side’s size not clear
            2. 1493, 1494 Pope draws line
      4. Northern Exploring Nations – Northern Wave
         1. Background
            1. Spanish/Portuguese jealously guarded geographic knowledge/navigational techniques
               1. Wanted to lock northern Europe out of Atlantic exploration
               2. What was at stake?
                  1. Military power
                  2. Immense wealth
                  3. Religious rivalry
            2. In 1500s, N. Europe only really can explore N. Atlantic coast of N. America
               1. Considered useless to Spain/Portugal
               2. Hoping to find a “Northwest Passage” to China/India through Arctic
            3. By middle 16th century, 17th century – gained knowledge from Spanish/Portuguese
               1. Stole information
               2. Shadowed ships
               3. Gained enough independent knowledge
            4. Led to conflict wherever they went
               1. Fighting for old claims meant wars on water and on land
         2. England
            1. 1500s – English fought series of naval wars with Spain
               1. All over the world
               2. Goals
                  1. harass Spanish colonies
                  2. capture Spanish treasure ships returning from New World
               3. Gained navigational/geographic knowledge from these wars
                  1. In process of fighting Spanish, Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates
            2. 1600s – English establish colonies
               1. Failed early colonies in N. America – Roanoke most famous
               2. Eventually Plymouth Rock (escaping Puritans) and Jamestown – Virginia
            3. British East India Company – 1600
               1. Manage economic/military relations
            4. Eventually landed and explored Asia – took Asian port in Malacca
            5. Motivations
               1. Gain military strength
               2. Gain wealth
               3. Difference
                  1. Eager to turn colonies into permanent settlements
               4. Exploitation of natural resources the norm
               5. Brought slaves to the New World
         3. France
            1. Surveyed Atlantic coast near Canada
            2. Colonized Canada
               1. Main reason – rich supply of animal furs
            3. Later explored Misissippi, Great Lakes and major rivers
               1. 1600>1700 took over Mississippi Basin area
         4. Netherlands – aka the Dutch
            1. At first, closely tied to War of Independence against Spain
               1. Strategy – attack Spanish at sea – disrupt connections to colonies
               2. Later did same to the Portuguese
                  1. Malacca, Sri Lanka, Spice Islands
            2. Dutch East India Company
            3. Invaded Indonesia – maintain colonial presence for hundreds of years
               1. Ran pepper and spice plantations
               2. Established Batavia 1619 > later became Jakarta
            4. N. America
               1. Henry Hudson – explore bay
               2. Purchased Manhattan – New Amsterdam – 1624
                  1. English took from Dutch in mid 1600s
               3. Briefly held colony in Brazil
            5. Africa – Cape Colony – Southern tip
               1. Supply station for ships sailing to Indonesia
         5. Effects
            1. created colonies
            2. conquering new lands
            3. led to wars
            4. led to nationalism
            5. legitimacy of absolute monarchy
         6. Why Northern colonies?
            1. Risky, expensive – needed backing of strong/wealthy states
            2. Merchants needed protection – need strong navies
      5. Effects of European colonization
         1. emergence of truly global economic system
         2. worldwide system of military competition among European powers for global dominance
            1. Some European wars that took place on other continents – first world wars
      6. Themes of European exploration
         1. Nations of Europe tried to establish control over territories they encountered
            1. Conquered and colonized
            2. Forced open markets
         2. Legacy – Positive for Europe
            1. Nations of Europe unprecedented amount of geographical, navigational, scientific knowledge
            2. Europe became extremely rich and powerful
            3. No longer the smallest/weakest civilization
         3. Legacy – Moral and ethical price
            1. Connection to war, greed, prejudice, religious intolerance, slavery
            2. Parts of the world remained under European control for hundreds of years
            3. Tensions between nations still have impact on international relations
            4. Environments, populations, economies, political systems altered dramatically
      7. World would never be the same
         1. Indian Ocean and Silk Road had connected before, but restricted from open seas
      8. Patterns of world trade
         1. Europeans established ports in East Asia, Southeast Asia, India, and west coast Africa
         2. involvement in international trade positively affected local and regional economies
         3. where direct trade not possible, Europeans negotiated special economic rights
            1. Russia – factors establish agencies in Moscow/St. Petersburg
            2. Ottoman Empire – Western European traders formed colonies with Constantinople
               1. Granted special commercial considerations
      9. Regions outside the world trade system
         1. China relied primarily on regional trade
            1. Most of economic activity through the port of Macao
            2. Disinterest in European products
            3. Trade imbalance – Europeans paid for Chinese products with silver
               1. England/Netherlands eventually developed own porcelain
         2. Tokugawa Japan prohibited foreign trade
            1. Except for limited commercial activity with the Dutch – Nagasaki
         3. Russia traded primarily with the nomads of central Asia
            1. 18th century began trading grain with the West
         4. Ottomans dismissed the impact of European technology
            1. showed little enthusiasm for trade with the West
         5. Mughal India encouraged trade with the West
            1. More preoccupied with imperial expansion
         6. Internal Africa – Europeans afraid to enter
            1. Risk of contracting malaria
            2. Lack of navigable rivers
   2. Commercial Revolution
      1. New Financing
         1. Joint Stock Company
            1. Pool the resources of many merchants
            2. Reducing the costs and risks of colonization
            3. Investors buy shares/stocks in company
            4. Each investor receives profit if company makes money
               1. Potential for huge profits
                  1. Piracy rampant
                  2. Huge cargoes on ships
         2. Substantial middle class of merchants
            1. attracted more investors
            2. beginnings of modern stock market
      2. Changing views
         1. Church revised ban on standard business practices
            1. lending money – usury
            2. charging interest on loans
         2. Monarchies granted trade monopolies to trade routes
            1. These companies would essentially run the nation they traded from
               1. Dutch East India Company – Spice Islands – Indonesia
               2. British East India Company – parts of India
               3. Moscovy Company – England – Russia
            2. Fostered the growth of capitalism
         3. Mercantilism
            1. Why?
               1. country actively sought trade
               2. don’t import more than export
                  1. trade deficit implied weakness in own country
            2. Country’s surplus had to be met by another’s deficit
               1. Pushed for colonization
               2. All resources to mother country
               3. Colonies must buy from mother country only
               4. Must ship using mother country’s sailors/ships
            3. Protected domestic industry
               1. Huge tariffs on imports
               2. Reduced/banned tariffs on trade within country
            4. Colonies annoyed
               1. Resources shipped to Europe
               2. Not free to buy cheapest/best products from overseas
               3. Added taxes create greater resentment
         4. Social diversification
            1. Growing importance of nonagricultural ways to earn money
            2. Bourgeoisie – middle class
               1. banking
               2. commerce
               3. trade
               4. shopkeeping
               5. artisanry
               6. craftsmanship
            3. small middle class to begin with, but grew in size and importance
         5. Wealth now based on industries around money, not merely land
         6. Extraction of precious metals – especially silver
            1. affected economies around the world
            2. glut of precious metals
            3. severe inflation
         7. Birth and growth of Atlantic slave trade
            1. 1400-1800 12 million Africans
      3. Chartered companies – companies allowed to exist by Charter from the crown
         1. Independent traders looking for profit from business
      4. State banks
         1. Large banks chartered by monarchy
            1. Facilitated lending and managing of kingdom’s economy
            2. Lent money to the government
            3. lent money and issued bank notes – redeemable for coin (gold/silver)

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Coercive Labor Systems – slavery vs. other coercive labor system
   1. Slavery
      1. Justifications for slavery
         1. English – partially racism of Africans
         2. Prisoners captured in battle
            1. Defeated Russians, Slavs, Germans, Poles sent to Istanbul
            2. Mamluks – Turkish/Mongol slave soldiers that fought for Egypt
      2. External Slave Trade
         1. Began around 1100s when Africans supplied captives to Arab merchants
         2. Portuguese bought for European market
            1. Before in East Africa, trade relatively small
            2. When Portuguese left in 1700s, trading cities of East Coast took over
               1. Swahili cities provided slaves to plantation islands off
               2. Africa
                  1. Also to Arabian Peninsula
         3. Origins of slavery in Americas
            1. Spanish in sugar islands of Caribbean
               1. Replaced Native Americans
            2. 1619 Dutch ship at Jamestown dropped off slaves
               1. Initially treated like indentured servants, not slaves
               2. But…when large numbers needed for tobacco farming, policy changed
            3. 1640 – Africans went from indentured servants to slaves for life – “durante vita”
            4. Northern colonies did not keep slaves in mass numbers
               1. lacked farms that had large-scale labor intensive crops
                  1. Climate/terrain unsuitable
            5. English institutionalized slavery
               1. needed cheap, abundant labor
               2. viewed Africans with language/culture as less than human
               3. Native Americans not useful
                  1. runaways, disease, easily hide in forest
               4. Indentured servitude
                  1. runways can blend in
                  2. only have labor for specific time
               5. Supply seemed limitless
                  1. W. Africa
                  2. Natural increase - birth
      3. Largest system of slavery – came mostly from West Africa
         1. Plantations of the Caribbean
         2. Southern British Colonies
            1. tobacco, rice, indigo
         3. Brazil
      4. Plantation system
         1. Required cheap, abundant labor
            1. Sub-Saharan Africa filled need
      5. Legal rights
         1. No legal rights
         2. slave marriages not recognized
         3. slaves could not own property
         4. little protection from cruel owner
         5. could be sold away from families
         6. illegal to teach slave to read or write
      6. Consequences of slavery
         1. Africa
            1. depopulated – captured youngest and healthiest
            2. randomness of slave raids – cross-section of society taken
               1. farmer, leaders, craftworker, mother,
            3. Arts and technology suffered – could make money from slave trade
            4. Sudanic empires lost importance – decline in interior empires
               1. Focus of power shifted to coast
            5. Desire for more wealth, power, guns increased cycle
            6. Africans seen as inferior – helped with justification
               1. Affected race relations to this day
   2. Peonage
      1. Debtor provides service until debt is paid off
      2. Debt bondage basis of tenant farming and sharecropping in US after Civil War
         1. Slaves essentially tied to land
      3. Prevalent in Latin America and still exists today
   3. Serfdom

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Cultural and Intellectual Developments
   1. Cultural/Intellectual thought before 1450
      1. Life before
         1. Dominated by Christianity for 1000 years
         2. Feudal system dominated political/social structure for 500 years
            1. Dominated by concern for local issues
               1. salvation
               2. territorial disputes
               3. Black Death
               4. lack of education outside monasteries
               5. small-scale trade
         3. Greece/Rome essentially forgotten
      2. What influenced shift
         1. Crusades exposed Christians to advanced Islamic Civilization
         2. Countries unified under centralized world
         3. Increased trade fueled contacts with other worlds
         4. Universities became centers of learning
         5. Scholasticism – exposed to rest of world and Europe’s past
         6. Byzantine and Islamic empires preserved the past
            1. added to knowledge of math and science
      3. Four major movements – Renaissance, Protestant Reformation, Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment
      4. Shift in thought
         1. No longer backward, isolated, self-involved region on edge of major civilizations
         2. the dominant civilization in the world
         3. shift in exploration and expansion caused and caused by shifts in thought
         4. Not quick, broad or in equal proportions
            1. long time to penetrate into all circles
            2. people with power jealously guarded it
            3. peasant class didn’t participate
               1. not educated
               2. not in position to learn about
   2. Renaissance
      1. Why the Renaissance?
         1. Black Death subsides – populations increase
         2. People move to cities
         3. Demand for products
         4. Middle Class emerges – bankers, merchants, traders
         5. Huge influx of money
         6. Interactions with Muslim world
            1. preservation of Greco-Roman learning by Muslims occupying Spain
         7. Weakening Byzantine Empire
            1. Allowed for more interactions between Muslim/European traders
         8. Northern Italian city-states getting rich
            1. wealthy from supplying goods to Crusaders
            2. transporting goods to Crusaders
            3. Byzantines no longer dominating trade
            4. Italy a patchwork of feudal domains
         9. Scholars uncovering long-forgotten Roman and Greek written works
         10. Location on site of former ruins - Italy
      2. Humanism – focus on human endeavor
         1. Life useless, goal salvation – suck it up and hopefully you’ll die and go to heaven
         2. Revisited texts from past
            1. Role of humanity – personal accomplishments, personal happiness
            2. Literature/history of Greece/Rome has tons of examples
         3. Shift from afterlife to here and now
         4. Impact – focus on individuals means less of a focus on institutions – i
         5. Church
         6. Renaissance Man – multifaceted, multitalented – da Vinci – artist, scientist, musician, architect, engineer
      3. Characteristics of Renaissance Art
         1. themes before primarily religious, now more secular
         2. subjects = monarchs, popes, merchants, Greek/Roman deities, contemporary events, ordinary
         3. human figure shown more realistically – study of anatomy
         4. use perspective – three dimensional
         5. use of tempera replaced with oil paints
      4. Rebirth in the arts
         1. Powerful families in city-states – Florence, Venice, Milan, Rome
            1. Medici – other families became patrons
            2. Competed to show off who had the latest/best artists
         2. Human figure is realistic
            1. Not flat, two-dimensional, not proportional to surroundings
            2. Light, shadow
            3. autopsies
         3. Linear perspective
            1. Nearby objects drawn bigger
            2. Focal point
         4. Roman Church embraces
            1. Art adorns palaces/cathedrals
            2. Huge domes from architects
         5. Spread North
            1. More religious – colors/symbols
            2. Famed portraitists
         6. Compared to before
            1. Religious vs. religious and secular
            2. Art in cathedrals vs. public plazas/homes
            3. Flat and stiff vs. realistic, softer, human, 3-D
            4. Not worldly vs. of this world
            5. Greater variety of colors
      5. Writing
         1. Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press
            1. Invented by Song Dynasty centuries earlier
            2. Printing books now easier
               1. Before…too expensive…left to monasteries
               2. Before…printed in Latin
            3. Growing middle class starts buying books
            4. papermaking flourishes – from Arabs, from Chinese
            5. People more educated – demanded more books
            6. helped spread Protest Reformation views
         2. First books practical or political
            1. Machiavelli – The Prince – maintain power – end justifies the means
               1. Self-interest more important than morals
         3. Books became printed for Middle Class
            1. Goal then merely for entertainment
            2. Focus on daily lives of people
         4. Fluorished in England and Low Countries – Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium
            1. Erasmus – In Praise of Folly – satirizes politics
            2. Sir Thomas More – Utopia – ideal society – shared wealth/common interests
            3. William Shakespeare
               1. Humanism focus
                  1. Human faults
                  2. Strengths/faults comedy/tragedy
               2. Works explored classical world – Julius Caesar, etc.
   3. Protestant Reformation
      1. Power of the Church under feudalism
         1. Prince and emperors didn’t like sharing power with pope
            1. But…power increased if sanctioned by pope
         2. One unifying force
            1. Undisputed control on otherworldly issues
            2. But…also had huge sway over worldly issues
         3. Could only get to heaven if you do it the Church’s way
         4. Power of Eastern Orthodox Church falls with fall of Constantinople in 1453
            1. Official religion for only Russia and easternmost parts of Europe
               1. And even some of these were controlled by Turkish rule
      2. Church gets into trouble
         1. Sells indulgences
            1. Needs to finance patrons – Renaissance artists
            2. Reduces time in purgatory for self, family members already there
            3. Generates income – maintains power over masses
         2. Controls huge blocks of land
         3. Doesn’t pay taxes
         4. Loses legitimacy when there are two popes for awhile
            1. France 7 decade transfer of papacy to Avignon
            2. Two popes claiming allegiance from Catholics
         5. Church too concerned with wealth power
         6. Clergy not well-trained/spiritual
            1. Some appointed for political purposes, not spiritual
            2. Corrupt – spiritually bankrupt
         7. Early attempts at reform
            1. John Wycliffe – Oxford University – Church should return to spiritual values
               1. body burned and followers persecuted
            2. Jan Hus – Bohemian - urged reform
               1. Burned at the stake
               2. Led to decades-long war throughout Holy Roman Empire
            3. Savonarola – Dominican friar – clergy
               1. used violence to fight Church
      3. Martin Luther
         1. Frustrations
            1. Selling of indulgences
            2. Worldly nature of Rome
            3. Church services not in vernacular
            4. Salvation by God through grace, not indulgences or through Church
            5. Don’t need Church as intermediary – go right to Bible
         2. Diet at Worms – saved by prince, not killed – refused to recant
      4. Christianity Splits
         1. Consequences
            1. Luther’s followers – Lutheran
            2. New leaders with other Biblical interpretations
               1. John Calvin – predestination – the Elect
                  1. Later Huguenots in France, Pilgrims in U.S.
            3. England – Henry VIII creates Anglican Church
               1. Because Pope refused annulment
               2. Allows King to confiscate Church property – pass out to nobles
         2. Philosophical consequence
            1. If firmest institution – the Church – could be questioned, anything is fair game
            2. Nature of universe
            3. Role of government
            4. Foundation for future revolutions
         3. Protestant Beliefs
            1. Originally – favored institutional simplicity
               1. Believed the Catholic Church too concerned with politics, bureaucracy
               2. But…when Protestant Church got larger…guess what happened?
            2. Less emphasis on rituals/sacraments
            3. Opposed veneration of Mary/Saints
            4. Only grace of God can save sinful man/woman – not pope, priest, ritual
            5. Reading the Bible and interpreting for selves
               1. Led to higher literacy rates
            6. More lenient about divorce
            7. Allowed clergy to marry
            8. rejected transubstantiation – communion – wine and bread = blood and body
      5. Counter-Reformation – Catholic Reformation
         1. Gained credibility
            1. Stopped selling indulgences
            2. Trained Priests/Bishops
            3. Encourage clerics to live Christian life
               1. Jesuits – stricter training
         2. Reconfirmed absolute authority – didn’t budge
            1. Sunday mass mandatory
            2. Concil of Trent – 1545>1563 – defined rules
               1. How to get salvation
               2. Latin
               3. punished heretics
            3. Succeeds in winning back converts
      6. Results – European conflict
         1. Southern Europe + France and S. Germany are Catholic
         2. England, N. Germany, Scandinavia, Calvin – Protestant, Anglican, or Calvinist
      7. Effects of Reformation
         1. Luther’s insistence on Bible being translated to German/vernacular spread literacy
         2. support of German princes led to increased nationalism
         3. But…Thirty Years War – German princes – Lutheranism vs. Catholicism
            1. Germany can’t become unified nation
         4. Religious wars freed Netherlands (Calvinism) from Spain
         5. Henry VIII – separated from Church
            1. Head of Church of England (Anglican Church)
            2. Act of Supremacy – stripped Roman Catholic Church of land > gave to some nobles
         6. End of medieval way of life where Catholic Church sole source of stability
         7. Anticlericalism
            1. dismay over corruption of clergy
            2. Luther’s teachings say priests not necessary
         8. Growth of middle class – good works/material success a confirmation of salvation
         9. Created middle class that eventually established European democracies
         10. Increased questioning of political authority
         11. strengthening the power of monarchs as papal power decreased
         12. Encouraged education – Protestants wanted children to be able to read/interpret the Bible
         13. improved the status of women within marriage – writers encouraged love between man/wife
         14. created new Protestant churches
   4. Scientific Revolution
      1. Previous beliefs
         1. Aristotle – Earth center of universe
            1. Scientific thought built on this fallacy, tried to explain
         2. Church/political structure inhibited scientific thought
            1. Church – focus on salvation
            2. Feudal system – focus on daily, mundane tasks and military conquest
         3. Changed by
            1. Growth of universities
            2. Exposure to scientific successes of Islam
      2. Scientific Advances
         1. Copernicus – heliocentric theory
         2. Galileo – logically explained heliocentric theory – banned book, heretic
         3. Scientific method
            1. Reason alone not good enough
            2. Prove what mind concluded
            3. Demonstrate it to others
            4. Open it to experimentation
            5. Prove with mathematical equations
            6. Use scientific instruments to prove
         4. Brahe – observatory
         5. Bacon – inductive reasoning
         6. Kepler – planetary motion
         7. Newton – calculus to prove theories
      3. Science for practical uses
         1. Labor saving devices
         2. Power sources from water/wind
      4. Long term effects
         1. People questioning Church even more
         2. Some become Atheists – no god
         3. Deists – great clockmaker in the sky – set the world going, then hands off
         4. people stop relying on supernatural explanations
         5. People think they can explain other elements of the world through scientific method/questions
            1. Empirical research – based on observation and carefully obtained data
         6. Gave rise to Enlightenment/Age of Reason
      5. Different than East Asia
         1. Chinese dealt with specific facts that were practical in nature
         2. Europeans formulated general laws
   5. Enlightenment
      1. Life before Enlightenment
         1. Monarchs gain power
            1. Centralize authority
            2. Nationalism for people
            3. Promote exploration/colonization
            4. Rule with absolute authority
            5. Claim Divine Right – God supported what monarch chose
         2. Divine Right vs. Mandate of Heaven
            1. Mandate – emperors divinely chosen, rule as long as pleased heaven
               1. Didn’t rule justly, responsibly – heaven would take away
            2. Divine Right – rule however you want – God chose you
      2. Enlightened philosophes discussed
         1. Nature of political structures
            1. Social contracts – gov’ts exist for people, people give up power
            2. Conflicting Ideas
               1. Thomas Hobbes – Leviathan – people evil – enlightened despot – China
               2. John Locke – born free w/ inalienable rights – need consent of people
               3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau – humans free to obey laws – if just
               4. Montesquieu – separation of powers – legislative, executive, judicial
               5. Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations – laissez faire economics
                  1. Government regulation minimal to allow for free operation of supply and demand
         2. Nature of social structures
            1. Voltaire – religious toleration
            2. Deism – god who created earth then let run on natural law – great clockmaker
         3. Created encyclopedia – Denis Diderot’s Encyclopedie
            1. Included scientific and social scientific knowledge
      3. Effects
         1. Seeds of revolution
            1. Questioning of traditional authority
         2. Some leaders became Enlightened Monarchs/Despots
            1. Joseph II - Austria
            2. Frederick II – Prussia
         3. Basis of modern technology and political liberalism
      4. Characteristics of Enlightened thinkers
         1. science/natural law governs human nature
         2. power of human reason/rationalism to discern principles of natural law
         3. once determined, people should live by these laws
         4. living by these laws would lead to society’s economic, political and social problems
         5. this would lead to human progress
      5. Challenges of Enlightenment
         1. find an end to injustice, inequality, and superstition
         2. toleration for all religions
         3. breaking down of institutions (Church) that were corrupt and not based on natural law/reason
   6. Comparative Global Causes of Cultural Change
   7. Comparative Global Impacts of Cultural Change
   8. Changes and continuities in Confucianism
   9. Major developments and exchanges in the arts

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Demographic and Environmental Changes
   1. Diseases
      1. Unintended part of global exchange
      2. Similar to transportation of bubonic plague from Asia to Europe on ships
         1. yellow fever, malaria, smallpox, measles to Americas/syphilis to Europe
      3. Impact on Europe minimal
      4. Impact of European/African diseases on Americas significant/drastic
         1. Wiped out populations on initial islands
         2. In Spanish claimed lands, population dropped from 50 million to 4 million
   2. Animals
      1. Types of animals
         1. Horse
            1. New method of labor
            2. New method of transportation
               1. Changed lives of Native Americans – especially on plains
            3. Led to depleted herds due to hunting – think buffalo
         2. Domestic animals – cattle, goats, and chickens
            1. Source of protein for Native Americans
            2. Destruction of natural grasses due to grazing
   3. New Crops
      1. Americas
         1. Spanish organized huge estates – haciendas
            1. Allowed for growing of large quantities of single crop – monoculture
               1. Labor system – Indians or slaves
         2. Negatives of monoculture farming
            1. Environmentally damaging
            2. Also damaging to economic system – reliance on one crop
         3. Crops
            1. Coffee, bananas, tomatoes, corn, potatoes
            2. Corn/potatoes most significant
               1. High calorie yield per acre grown
            3. Sugar – most crucial cash crop
               1. Primarily on Caribbean Islands – grown, processed, refined
               2. Exceptionally labor intensive – stimulated growth of African slave trade
      2. Effects of food exchange
         1. Led to population increase due to balanced diet
         2. Led to increased slavery due to need for labor
   4. Comparative Population Trends
      1. Columbian Exchange – by 1750 continents looked totally different than in 1450
         1. Indigenous people wiped out
            1. Incas/Aztecs gone
            2. Huge cities destroyed
         2. Europeans moved by hundreds of thousands
         3. Forced migration of Africans
         4. Cities in Europe swelled
            1. Merchants getting richer from trade
      2. 1400 -1700 – Population of world from 350 million to 610 million
         1. Longest period of uninterrupted and rapid population growth
         2. Due mainly to improvements in agricultural techniques
         3. general warming of the climate
         4. Asia/Europe grew fastest
      3. Growth in China
         1. 80 million in 1400 to 160 million in 1600
      4. Causes of improved population growth
         1. Bringing more land under cultivation
         2. New strands of rice
         3. Improved farming methods
         4. Cessation of frequent conflicts/invasions
         5. lack of widespread outbreaks of disease
         6. new crops improve nutrition
      5. Growth of urban populations
         1. always magnets for people from the countryside wanting better, more exciting life
         2. new start for people driven off land
            1. Famine (French farmers late 1700s)
            2. Enclosure movement (English farmers 1500s)
            3. Too little productive land for too many people (English farmers 1500s)
      6. African Slave Trade
         1. Causes massive demographic shifts
            1. Brutal separation from family/culture
            2. Even if survived, absorbed into foreign culture that considered them property
               1. Many Christianized, but…
               2. Maintained parts of their language and culture
               3. Unique cultural synthesis – African music, dress, and mannerisms mixed with Spanish and indigenous cultures in the Americas
         2. forever alters racial and genetic make-up of the world
   5. Environmental
      1. Americas
         1. Chief goal – exploitation of natural resources
            1. Precious metals
               1. 185,000 kilograms (400,000 pounds) of gold
               2. 16 million kilograms (45 million pounds) of silver

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Diverse Interpretations
   1. Debates about the timing and extent of European predominance in the world economy
      1. European desire for world dominance
      2. Technological superiority
      3. Why some European city-states and not others?
      4. “great man theory” – visionary thinking of a few extraordinary people
         1. Prince Henry the Navigator and Sir Isaac Newton
         2. Or…did these people influence very few others
      5. Culture – life on earth had value of its own – life was getting better – no longer just think of afterlife
      6. Political theory – European monarchs needed money from new colonies/new trade networks
         1. Finance wars and add to their power
   2. Comparison of world economic system of this period to world economic network of previous period
      1. Changed how?
      2. Impact of trade on world’s civilizations
      3. Role of economic considerations in influencing other world interactions
2. Comparing Imperial System – European monarchy vs. land-based Asian Empire
   1. Methods of government
      1. Most common government
         1. single ruler with absolute and/or divine power
         2. nobility as counselors
         3. civil service
      2. Asian Empires
         1. Japan
            1. European feudalism was decentralized
               1. feudal aristocracy owed allegiance to monarch but ruled own territories
               2. later monarch would need to reign in powerful nobles to build single nation
            2. Japan feudalism became centralized

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Empire Building – Asia vs. Africa vs. Europe
   1. Movitation
      1. For all, increase wealth and power
      2. Africans/Europeans – convert nonbelievers to Christianity/Islam
   2. Means
      1. Force
      2. Europeans and Asians – firearms
      3. Africans – advent of Europeans slave trade/guns
   3. Impediments
      1. Europeans – lack of available territory on European continent
         1. Not rich in resources
         2. Needed new markets
         3. Needed markets not ruled by powerful government
      2. Africans and Asians
         1. Distance
         2. ability to set up stable and strong organizations to govern conquered people
         3. Rivals who worked against the rules to gain either local or imperial power
   4. Advantages
      1. Europeans
         1. Navies
         2. Advanced technology
      2. Africans
         1. Access to European weapons
      3. Asia
         1. Chinese dynasties alternating with periods that saw warring states
            1. Being part of an empire appealing to the Chinese at times
2. XIV. Interaction with the West – Russia vs. Ottoman/China/Tokugawa Japan/Mughal India
   1. Varying influences
      1. Russia
         1. Had been mistrust toward Europeans
            1. Europeans doing business in Russia had been kept away from ordinary
         2. Peter embarked on Europeanization effort to modernize nation
      2. Ottoman
         1. Took a military approach
         2. Although they traded with the West
            1. desired to enlarge empire at the expense of European nations
         3. Struck westward in an attempt to enlarge their domain
            1. Captured Constantinople in 1453
               1. Brought down teetering Byzantine Empire
            2. Tried to siege Vienna, but failed
            3. Continued fight against Holy Roman Empire in Mediterranean
               1. Took over eastern portion
      3. China – remained relatively isolated
         1. Under Ming
            1. allowed some missionaries Jesuit – but mostly shut off
               1. Matteo Ricci and Francis Xavier
            2. Portuguese and Spanish arrive – too big to conquer
               1. Set up embassies and trading houses
         2. Under Qing – shut off from west
            1. Europeans arrived, but Beijing declined offers to trade
            2. Shut off from technologies of Scientific Revolution
               1. Xenophobic ideals
         3. Considered themselves superior
         4. Contacts limited to treaty ports
      4. Japan – periods of isolation and acceptance
         1. 1543 - Portuguese sailors shipwrecked and washed ashore on Southern island of Kyushu
         2. Additional visits from European traders and missionaries
            1. Western technology – clocks and firearms
            2. Firearms
               1. Changed Japanese warfare from feudal to modern
               2. Allowed Tokugawa to maintain authority
            3. Christian missionaries
               1. At first, Catholic missionaries protected from Buddhist resistance
               2. Late 1580s Tokugawa shifted protection – saw Catholicism as threat
                  1. Missionaries ordered to leave
                  2. Christians persecuted and executed
                  3. Distrusted new religion
         3. By 1630 – trade only allowed in a few cities
            1. Japanese ships forbidden from traveling long distances
            2. Created seclusion laws – even limited trading with Chinese
         4. By 1640 – only Dutch and Chinese allowed to trade at Nagasaki
            1. Kept Japanese informed of Western developments – Dutch learning
            2. Adopted those Western traditions considered appropriate for Japanese goals
         5. Allowed Japanese merchant class to gain influence
            1. Set stage for pre-industrial development
      5. Mughal India – Europeans try to control areas
         1. Mughal emperor welcomed English East India Company in 1613
            1. By 1800, imperialism the goal
            2. 1857 company deposed final Mughal emperor
            3. Company disbanded – became part of British Empire in 1876
         2. Set up factories and trading ports
            1. British, Portuguese, French, Dutch
            2. French/British took over most
         3. Local princes act as allies to defend against Mughals – push out
         4. Not limited to treaty ports
            1. Started to try to affect local affairs
            2. Won the right to acquire territory
         5. British/French rivalry affected India – eventually Britain takes French land
   2. Varying consequences
   3. Penetrated some regions, but not others

   Examples of What You Need to Know
   Below are examples of the types of information you are expected to know contrasted with examples of those things you are not expected to know for the multiple-choice section.

   • * Neoconfucianism, but not specific Neoconfucianists
   • * Importance of European exploration, but not individual explorers
   • * Characteristics of European absolutism, but not specific rulers
   • * Reformation, but not Anabaptism or Huguenots
   • * Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, but not the Safavid Empire
   • * Siege of Vienna (1688–89), but not the Thirty Years' War
   • * Slave plantation systems, but not Jamaica's specific slave system
   • * Institution of the harem, but not Hurrem Sultan

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Major Empires
   1. European Overview
      1. Most monarchies
         1. divine right ordained by God
      2. Retain pure bloodlines to God
         1. intermarriage among royal families of different nations common
         2. monarchies of one nation gained international influence
            1. ties of marriage/inheritance led to alliances
      3. Strong national loyalties
         1. Led to internal/external conflicts
            1. religious fights between Protestants and Catholics
            2. internal civil wars between monarch and nobles
            3. battles stemming from trade disputes between rival nations
      4. Spain/Portugal start off strong – England/France replace
   2. Ottoman
      1. Background Information
         1. Abbasid Caliphate loses power in 1200s
            1. Decades of chaos and confusion followed
            2. Strong Islamic empires emerged to replace fallen caliphate
               1. Ottoman Empire
               2. Safavid Empire in Persia
               3. Mughal Empire in India
               4. Characteristics of all three
                  1. extremely centralized
                  2. technologically advanced
                  3. military powerful
                  4. “gunpowder empires”
                     1. Mastery of weaponry
                     2. Effective use of weapons for maintaining regional power
         2. History of Ottoman Empire
            1. Islamic Empire overrun by Mongols in 13th century
            2. Byzantine Empire huge influence
               1. controlled most of Turkey
               2. Influenced Southeastern Europe/Russia
            3. Mongol Empire fell, Osman Bey led Muslim Ottoman Empire
               1. Eastern Turkey – named after first leader Osman
                  1. On the steppes of Central Asia
                  2. Migrated westward to Asia Minor in 1200s
                  3. Vassals of the Seljuk Turks
                  4. Established own state in 1280 and then slowly expanded
               2. Challenged Byzantine Empire
               3. Over 14th century, gradually expanded
               4. 1453 invaded Constantinople
            4. by 1550 controlled most of former Roman Empire, except for Italy west
         3. Constantinople renamed Istanbul
            1. Converted cathedrals to mosques – Hagia Sophia
         4. Religious policy – extremely tolerant – most tolerant empire in Europe
            1. Jews/Christians allowed to practice
            2. As empire grew, so did religious persecution
               1. conquered large areas – enslaved Christian subjects’ children
                  1. fighting warriors – Janisaries
         5. Selim I – 1512 - claimed to be rightful heir of caliphs
            1. Istanbul became center of Islamic civilization
         6. Suleiman I – the Magnificent started Golden Age
            1. Increased military spending
            2. encouraged development of the arts
            3. 1529 – laid siege on Vienna, but stopped
               1. Could have changed course of Western Europe
         7. Lasted until 1922
            1. greatly expanded reach of Islam
            2. kept Eastern Europe in state of flux/always threatened
               1. Western Europe could dominate
               2. Exploration allowed them to bypass Ottoman Empire
                  1. Traded directly with India, China, Americas
         8. Accomplishments
            1. transforming Constantinople into Muslim capital – Istanbul
            2. turning many of the great Byzantine churches, such as Hagia Sophia, into mosques
            3. building an empire on part of 3 continents
            4. maintaining large multiethnic empire from Belgrade to Egypt for 600 years
            5. creating extensive civil service and bureaucracy
               1. Using slaves and subject peoples for labor
            6. reasonably accessible government allowing citizens to petition the sultan regarding religious and political issues
      2. Political Structure
         1. Sultan – sovereign over ministers – wazirs
            1. Ruled with help of provincial governors – beys
            2. Gradually power taken from local rulers
               1. held from Topkapi Palace “Cannon Gate” – Istanbul
            3. 1500 sultan claims title of caliph – religiously legitimizing political authority
         2. Military
            1. Conquests
               1. Destruction of Byzantine Empire – 1453
                  1. 80,000 army + artillery
               2. Pressed into N. Africa
               3. Pushed into Europe – Romania
                  1. Constant assault on Austria’s Holy Roman Empire
                  2. Defeated Hungary
               4. Superiority of Mediterranean until 1500s
                  1. Remained powerful presence until World War I
            2. Military
               1. Incorporated gunpowder artillery, cannon into armies
               2. Cannon on navies
               3. Cavalry supported with janissaries “new troops”
                  1. recruited from childhood from conquered Christians
                  2. Converted to Islam and raised to be loyal to sultan
                  3. Slaves…but with many privileges
                  4. Advanced training in using gunpowder
                  5. System kept them at forefront of world military affairs
            3. Politics and religion
               1. Governed diverse religions
                  1. Variety of Christians – Orthodox, Nestorian, Coptic, Catholic, Protestant
                  2. Sunni and Shiite Muslims
               2. Many languages – Turkish, Arabic, Persian
               3. Religious tolerance for non-Muslims
                  1. Allowed to convert to Islam, but not forced
                  2. Pay a special head tax
                  3. Not treated badly – not totally equal, but not persecuted
                  4. Kept peace with economic benefits
               4. Divided into administrative units – millets
               5. Sultan position hereditary
                  1. not always inherited
                     1. sultan usually didn’t marry – heirs through concubines
                     2. concubine’s son chosen as heir = “queen mother”
                        1. Influence as advisor
                  2. New sultan often killed brothers to eliminate competition
      3. Social
         1. Women
            1. Elite
               1. Several influential, yet informal roles
                  1. Queen mothers
                     1. ran royal house
                     2. diplomatic relations w/ foreign naitions
                     3. Controlled marriage alliances
                  2. Harem – complex elite social network
                     1. Originally slaves (not Islamic) or prisoners b, Trained to read Qu’ran, sew, perform music
                     2. Ranked by status
                     3. Could leave harem to marry officials
                     4. Few used for sexual purposes
                     5. Members of sultan’s extended family
                     6. Mother influence over sons – raised and then respected
            2. Outside imperial family
               1. Not seen in public in Istanbul/major cities
               2. Right to own/retain property
               3. Purchased urban real estate
               4. Could testify for selves in court
         2. Culture
            1. Intellectual advancement high
               1. Lost dominance over Europeans in 1600s
                  1. Europe’s Scientific Revolution
                  2. Complacency
            2. Skilled architects
               1. Mosques + minarets/large domes
               2. Renowned for mosaics
         3. Class structure
            1. Sultan – leader
            2. Vizier – prime minister
            3. Divan – cabinet of advisors
            4. Janissaries – elite military corps of converted slaves
            5. Regional officials
            6. General population
               1. merchants, farmers/peasants, artisans
   3. China
      1. Political
         1. History - Ming
            1. Ming Dynasty – 1368-1644
               1. Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang
                  1. Warlord who assisted in kicking out Mongols
               2. Reacted against Mongol rule by returning to Chinese tradition
            2. Ming Dynasty reforms
               1. Scholar gentry restored
               2. Confucian based civil service exam reinstated/expanded
                  1. Women still banned from taking exam
               3. Currupt/incompetent public officials beaten in public
            3. Brief attempts at exploration trade
               1. Zheng He – brief, several major expeditions of exploration/trade
               2. Sailed through Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf
               3. By 1430 scholar-gentry persuaded Ming leaders to call back
                  1. Too costly, need to spend money on Mongol threat
            4. Successes
               1. Politically dynamic and militarily active state – conquered neighbors
               2. Economically prosperous
               3. Population grew steadily in 1300s and 1400s – recovering from war/disease
            5. Decline
               1. Last 200 years ruled by incompetent rulers
                  1. Maintenance of dams, dikes, irrigation systems neglected
                  2. Classic pattern of decline
                     1. rulers effective/dynamic at beginning - 14th/15th
                     2. Become complacent – withdraw to Forbidden City
               2. Nomadic peoples continued to pressure Great Wall
                  1. Led to higher taxes
                  2. 1644 – Jurchens, Manchus, conquered Ming dynasty
                  3. Became the Qing dynasty – ruled into 20th century
                     1. Last dynasty
               3. Court eunuchs became very powerful/corrupt – influenced decisions
               4. Scandals involving misappropriation of imperial funds
                  1. scholar-gentry protest
               5. Massive influx of precious metals triggered inflation
                  1. Spanish/Portuguese only had silver to offer
               6. Agricultural yields shrank
                  1. Soil quality worsens + cooler climate
                  2. Land can’t accommodate population growth
               7. Peasant revolt
               8. Last Ming emperor – Chung-cheng committed suicide after trying to kill family
            6. Remained relatively isolated from the west
         2. History – Qing/Manchu Dynasty – 1644-1911
            1. Manchu
               1. Pastoral nomads from North
                  1. Manchuria – ethnically distinct
               2. last imperial family/foreign rule of China
               3. Incorporated elements of Chinese culture
                  1. used traditional civil service examination
                  2. encouraged neo-Confucian values
                     1. obedience to ruler strictly enforced
                     2. Confucian ideal of traditional agriculture
                     3. Disallowed technical advancement
                     4. Return to feudal past
                  3. Eunuchs employed as court officials
                  4. Adopted a xenophobic foreign policy
                  5. Manchus given superior positions over Chinese
               4. Kept themselves apart as rulers
            2. Qing economics
               1. Full scale trade with Europeans began under Qing – 1690s
               2. Closely regulated trade by state
               3. Went through port of Canton exclusively – like Nagasaki
               4. Sold porcelain, tea, and silk
               5. Allowed few imports – usually paid with silver
               6. favorable balance of trade
            3. Qing decline
            4. rulers grew softer and less active
            5. population grew faster than economy
            6. poverty worsened
            7. slipping backward in terms of technological innovation, scientific advancement, global power
               1. Left selves open to influence and the later domination
         3. During time period, power shift began
            1. didn’t benefit from scientific/technological advances of Europe
      2. Social
         1. Ming Dynasty reforms
            1. Thought control sanctioned by government
            2. Neo-Confucianism increased its influence – strict obedience to state
            3. Women continued to occupy a subordinate position
         2. Foreigners allowed under Ming
            1. late 16th century – Jesuits allowed to enter
               1. Chinese interested in scientific and technological knowledge
               2. Allowed to remain through Ming Dynasty
         3. Social hierarchy under Ming
            1. Absolute power from ruler > scholar gentry > farmers > merchants
               1. Denigration of commercial class becomes problem later on
               2. Aggressive European traders able to have impact in 1700s
         4. Under Qing – Manchu
            1. Manchus above Chinese
            2. Manchus not allowed to engage in trade or manual labor
            3. Marriage between Manchus and Chinese forbidden
            4. All Han men required to wear their hair braided in the back
               1. Found humiliating
               2. Hairstyle – que – visual image west has of China
               3. shave their foreheads “lose your hair or lose your head” Chinese proverb
         5. Cultural grandeur/elegance – peak during Ming dynasty
            1. literary masterpieces, fine porcelain, architecture, revival of Confucianism
   4. Portugal
      1. Political
      2. Social
   5. Spain
      1. Political
         1. King Ferdinand from Christian North + Queen Isabella from Muslim South united
            1. created nation-state
            2. aggressively supported exploration
               1. underwriting Columbus’ exploration
               2. establishing empires in the New World
            3. Formidable navy fleet – Spanish Armada
               1. Ruled the seas for 16th century
         2. Charles V
            1. Grandparents on one side Hapsburgs on the other side Isabella and Ferdinand
            2. Empire stretched from Austria to Germany to Spain
               1. 1519 – Holy Roman Emperor
                  1. Held parts of France, Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Spain
                  2. Possessions brought wars/riches
                     1. Fought France for Italy
                     2. Fought Ottoman Empire for Eastern Europe
                     3. Defended Catholicism in Germany
                  3. 1556 – retired to monastery – split throne
         3. Philip II gets throne of Spain
            1. Controls part of France, Sicily and Netherlands
               1. Greatest expansion in the New World
               2. Rebirth of culture under Spanish Renaissance
            2. Devout
               1. continuation of Spanish Inquisition for heretics
               2. Catholic Reformation against Protestants
               3. Increase in missionary work
            3. Dutch revolted
               1. wanted autonomy – develop own empire
               2. Protestant
               3. 1581 – Northern provinces gained independence – Dutch Netherlands
                  1. Southern part remains loyal to Spain – later becomes Belgium
            4. Other signs of failure
               1. Spanish forces fighting for Catholicism in France unsuccessful
               2. English defeated Spanish at the British Isles
               3. Containment of Spain, Rise of Britain
               4. Mid 17th century had colonial holdings, but influence failing
            5. Why Spanish failure?
               1. Amassed enormous sums of gold
               2. Spent just as quickly
                  1. Wars
                  2. Missionary activity
                  3. Maintenance of huge fleet
         4. Accomplishments
            1. expelling Moors and ending Islamic rule in southwestern Europe
            2. sponsoring maritime exploration that led to the creation of a vast overseas Spanish Empire
            3. close ties with the Catholic Church
            4. loss of the Netherlands as a Spanish holding
            5. literary flowering that produced Don Quixote – one of the greatest modern works of Western literature
      2. Social
         1. Exploration and colonization ensured spread of Spanish language, culture, Catholicism
            1. extended across Atlantic
   6. Russia
      1. Political
         1. Effects of Mongol Rule
            1. Nation with weakened emphasis on education, trade and manufacturing
         2. Third Rome
            1. After Rome, Constantinople – Orthodox Christianity moved to Moscow
         3. Ivan III/IV – declared Russia free of Mongol control – 1480
            1. established absolute rule in Russia
            2. expanded empire eastward
               1. with expansion added substantial Muslim minority
            3. Cossacks
               1. Recruited peasants – freed from feudal relationship
                  1. Conquer eastern land
                  2. Inhabit eastern land
               2. Ivan the Terrible – Czar – Russian for Caesar
                  1. Ruled under reign of terror
                     1. Executed anyone who disagreed
            4. Comparing Russia with Western Europe
               1. Russia – centralization of authority, but still feudalism vs. W. Europe evolving
               2. Russia remains isolated from west, pushed eastward
                  1. W. Europe – Renaissance , exploration, religious debate, scientific rev/enlightenment passed over
                     1. Not part of Renaissance, controlled by illiterate Mongols
                     2. Not part of Reformation, not Catholic
               3. Growth territorial, not artistic/intellectual
            5. Following Ivan IV 1584
               1. Fight for the throne – Time of Troubles
               2. Feudal lords vie for power – kill one after another
               3. Michael Romanov czar 1613
                  1. Romanov family rules until 1917
            6. Romanov family
               1. consolidated power, ruled ruthlessly
               2. peasants became slaves/serfs
               3. spread empire – 1689 from Ukraine to Manchuria/Pacific Ocean
               4. Created state control over the Russian Orthodox Church
            7. Peter the Great – 1682-1725
               1. Convinced he must westernize Russia
                  1. Larger agricultural nation than East Asian empires or W. Europe
                  2. Travels to Europe to try to get support against Turks
                     1. Gained appreciation for Western ideas
               2. Russia’s first navy
               3. New capital – St. Petersburg
                  1. Home to hundreds of engineers, scientists, artists, architects
               4. War with Sweden gained warm water port
               5. Did not accept Western democratic trends – parliamentary government
               6. Created secret police
               7. Encouraged the continuation of serfdom
                  1. Bound to land only – not to person
                  2. Kept economy bound to agriculture
            8. Catherine the Great
               1. Continued xpansionist and westernization policies of Peter
               2. Laws restricting serfs were harsher than before
               3. Reduced severe punishments for crimes
               4. Added new territory down to Northern California
         4. Social
            1. Before Romanov family, excluded from Western Change
               1. Illiteracy of Mongols + Orthodox + Geography
            2. Peter the Great
               1. St. Petersburg- “window to the west”
                  1. recruited finest scientists/artists to change Russia
               2. Women nobles forced to dress in western fashions
               3. Men shaved beards, wear western clothing
                  1. Out with the old, in with the new
                  2. Showed denial of Mongol traditions
               4. Architecture of city done by serfs
            3. Catherine the Great – 1762-1796
               1. Enlightened policies of education and wester culture
               2. Fiercely enforced serfdom
               3. Devalued merchant class
               4. Territorially expanded west – Poland/Black Sea territory – Mediterranean
            4. Westernization
               1. By end of 18th century looked a lot different
                  1. Gained sea access through Black/Baltic Seas
                  2. Actively sought cultural access to the west
               2. Unlike Chinese/Japanese who fully withdrew
                  1. Russians wanted to engage the West, emulate it
   7. France
      1. Political
         1. Unification began after Hundred Years War drove English from France
            1. central authority in a strong monarch
         2. Religious differences prevented full unity
            1. Largely Catholic
            2. French Protestants – Huguenots
               1. Sizable and influential minority
            3. Mid to late 16th century fought brutally
               1. 1598 – Henry IV – Edict of Nantes – environment of toleration
               2. Henry IV – Bourbon king
                  1. Bourbons ruled France until 1792
         3. Comparing England and France in 17th century
            1. France ruled by series of strong and able monarchs – Bourbon Dynasty
            2. After Elizabeth, England went from…
               1. Monarchy>commonwealth>Restoration>Glorious Revolution
            3. France’s Estates General weaker than England’s Parliament
               1. Estates General didn’t meet for most of 17th century
                  1. King ruled successfully under divine right
               2. Parliament in England
                  1. limited power of monarchs
                  2. representatives chosen by voters from elite classes
         4. Cardinal Richeliu
            1. Catholic – chief advisor to Bourbons
            2. Strengthened French crown
               1. Didn’t seek to destroy Protestants
               2. Helped them attack Catholic Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire
                  1. Empire’s fall would benefit France
            3. New bureaucratic class
               1. noblesse de la robe – bureaucrats – run government
               2. prepared France for strong position under Louis XIV
         5. Louis XIV
            1. Four years old when took crown – mother/Cardinal Mazarin ruled for him
            2. Long rule 1643-1715 exemplified grandiose whims of absolute monarchy
               1. “Sun King” “Most Christian King”
               2. Patronized arts – contributed to culture, glory of France
               3. “I am the State”
               4. Built Versailles to prove power
               5. Never summoned Estates General to meet
               6. Revoked Edict of Nantes – forced Huguenots to leave
               7. Appointed Jean Baptiste Cobert to manage royal funds
                  1. Increase size of French empire
                     1. More business transactions
                     2. More taxes
                  2. France constantly at war
                  3. Warfare and mercantilist policies allowed French to get rich
                  4. War of Spanish Succession – 1701-1714 hurt plans
            3. War of Spanish Succession
               1. Louis XIV’s grandson inherits Spanish thrown
                  1. Europe afraid of supernation/empire
                  2. France controls huge chunk of Americas
                  3. Spain controls most of Mexico, South America
               2. England, Holy Roman Empire, German princes vs. France
               3. Eventually – grandson – Philip V can rule
                  1. Spain loses land to England
                  2. Spain can’t unite with France
         6. By 1750 military strength starting to fade
         7. Still center of culture for Europe
         8. Accomplishments
            1. Established academies for study of commerce and science
            2. Close ties between the Catholic Church and the French state formed
            3. Solidified autocratic control over France
            4. Most ornate and expensive palace in Europe was built at Versailles
            5. Sponsored writers and musicians
            6. Engaged in costly wars that strained the royal treasury
         9. Characteristics of absolute monarchies
            1. maintenance of strong armies
            2. establishment of elaborate bureaucracies
            3. high taxes to support the frequent wars
            4. believed in divine right of kings
            5. territorial expansion a goal
         10. Characteristics of European nation states
             1. well-suited to continent full of various cultural groups
             2. governs people who share a common culture, common language
             3. has definite geographic boundaries
             4. enjoys sovereignty
             5. created rivalries and divisions that often led to war
      2. Social
   8. England
      1. Political
         1. Mid 1400s war between two powerful families
            1. The War of the Roses
            2. House of Lancaster vs. the House of York
            3. New ruling dynasty – the Tudors – Henry VIII and Elizabeth
            4. Accomplishments
               1. broke with the Catholic Church and fromed the Church of England
                  1. monarch at the head
               2. Wales was absorbed into the domain of England
               3. Defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588
                  1. Marked beginning of Spanish decline, Egnland ascendancy
               4. Encouraged the arts – High Renaissance bloomes
               5. Literary achievement notable – Ben Johnson and William Shakespeare

            a, Henry VIII – 1509-1547 - Church of England

            1. Henry VIII nullified pope’s authority in England – Act of Supremacy
               1. Divorce wife and marry Ann Boleyn for male heir
                  1. Daughter was Elizabeth – oversaw golden/bloody age
         2. Elizabethan Age – 1558-1603
            1. Commercial expansion
               1. Muscovy Co mpany – first joint stock company – to Russia
               2. British East India Company
            2. Exploration and colonization in the New World
               1. Sped up after defeat of Spanish Armada in 1588
               2. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
               3. First English colonies in Virginia – Jamestown
            3. Religious battles unleashed by Protestant Reformation
               1. Anglicans – Church of England battling Catholics
               2. Puritans regularly persecuted
         3. James I power in 1607
            1. Attempted to accommodate Catholics and Puritans – problems persisted
               1. Puritans didn’t recognize king for religious matters
                  1. James claims divine right
                  2. Pilgrims find a new home in New World
         4. Charles I – 1625
            1. Petition of Right – desperate for money – Parliament has power of purse
               1. Limited taxes
               2. Forbid unlawful imprisonment
               3. Ignores petition after getting funds – doesn’t let parliament meet 11 yrs
            2. 1640 Scotland doesn’t like Charles rule
               1. Parliament called back
                  1. Long parliament – 20 years – 1640-1660
                  2. Refused to give him money to fight Irish
                  3. Charles sends troops to arrest parliament members
                  4. Leads to civil war
               2. Roundheads – Oliver Cromwell vs. Charles’s Cavaliers
                  1. Roundheads win – king executed
                  2. Cromwell rose to power as Lord Protector
                     1. Beginnings of English Commonwealth
         5. Oliver Cromwell
            1. Religious intolerance
               1. Violence against Catholics/Irish
                  1. Encouraged Protestants to move to Northern Ireland
                     1. Led to conflicts later
                  2. Much resentment
            2. Upon Cromwell’s death – Charles II brought to throne for limited monarchy
               1. Stuart Restoration
         6. Charles II – 1660
            1. Closet Catholic – gave religious rights to people
            2. Habeus Corpus – no unlawful arrests without due process
         7. James II – openly Catholic
            1. Believed in Divine Right of Kings
               1. People feared he’d make a Catholic nation
            2. Fled to France under Glorious Revolution
               1. Replaced in 1688 by son-in-law and daughter – William and Mary
         8. William and Mary – 1689
            1. Protestant rulers of the Netherlands
            2. English Bill of Rights – created constitutional monarchy
               1. England’s future rulers Anglican
               2. Powers limited
               3. laws passed by parliament now laws of the land
               4. all taxes only levied by parliament
               5. citizens allowed to petition monarch with grievances
               6. freedom of speech within Parliament
            3. Radical replacement of sitting king, set precedent for making royalty figureheads
      2. Social
         1. Elizabethan Age
            1. Shakespeare wrote his masterpieces
   9. Tokugawa Japan
      1. Political
         1. History
            1. The Warring States Period – 1467-1600 – Era of Independent Lords
               1. Open defiance of the Shogun led to political fragmentation
                  1. small regions fighting against each other
                  2. Governed by a series of military governments – shogunates
                  3. By late 1300s/1400s, becoming increasingly decentralized
               2. 200 daimyo – feudal lords fought each other
                  1. Samurais followed bushido – way of the warrior
                     1. Some left masters/masters killed - ronin
               3. “samurai military aristocracy” further established
               4. Ended in climatic battle of 1600
                  1. Toyotomi Hideyoshi united Japan
                     1. Appointed five regents to rule until son got older
                     2. These five regents fought each other for power
                  2. Winner Tokugawa Ieyasu
                     1. Forced Hideyoshi’s son to kill himself
                     2. Technically ruled in the name of the emperor, but…
            2. Tokugawa Shogunate – bakufu - 1603 – Tokugawa family acquired the title of shogun
               1. Ruled Japan from city of Edo – Tokyo – known as Edo period
               2. ended the feudal fighting
               3. Established new feudal order that would last for centuries
               4. 15 Tokugawa shoguns
                  1. Stability, law and order their priorities
                  2. Known as the Great Peace
         2. Centralized authority
            1. Large estates of daimyo broken up and taken over by Tokugawa
            2. Peace came at the price of dictatorship
               1. Increased social stratification
         3. Economic gains
            1. Population grew rapidly
            2. Rice and grain production more than doubled
            3. Highly urbanized – Edo one of world’s largest cities
            4. Built elaborate network of roads and canals
            5. Manufacturing – lacquerware, pottery, steel, and quality weapons
            6. Merchant class gains in wealth and power
      2. Social
         1. Warring States Period
            1. Religion
               1. New sects of Buddhism arrived from China
                  1. attracted Samurai class
                     1. Buddhist detachment from worldly pain
                     2. impervious to suffering
         2. Edo Period – Tokugawa Shogunate
            1. Class hierarchy – social stratification becomes unbreakoutable
               1. Samurai – martial elite, including shogun, all daimyo, soldiers
               2. Farmers – peasants whose duty was to feed the nation
               3. Craftspeople – makers of goods such as clothes/tools
               4. Traders/merchants – business class who bought and sold
               5. Eta:outcasts – engaged in “unclean” professions – animal skinning/tanning
               6. Tokugawa laws – rigid to protect the status quo/privileges of samurai
                  1. Social class defined at birth
                  2. Farmers had to stay on their land
                  3. only samurai allowed to carry long sword
                  4. Japanese forbidden from leaving Japanese islands – death
                  5. One Dutch ship could trade per year – Kyushu
                  6. Families of daimyo lived in Edo – guarantees loyalty
                  7. Christianity outlawed
                  8. Some southern daimyo converted and rebelled – cause
      3. Neo-Confucianism
         1. Tokugawa adopted to form traditional basis
            1. Like China, reciprocal relationship between ruled and ruler
            2. Ruler maintains order/acts benevolent and ruled obey those in charge
            3. Creates harmony in society
         2. Hallmarks – primary points
            1. Historicism – looked to the past as a guide – Shogun ruled in name of Emperor
            2. Rationalism – investigate natural and human world to discover principles of human interactions
            3. Basic Human Relations – Stressed social order, rejected Buddhist metahphysics – Five Relationships
            4. Ethnocentrism – saw selves as superior to outsiders
               1. Pride in divine emperor
               2. Own uniqueness as a people
      4. Women
         1. Women lived under increased restrictions
            1. Particularly the samurai class – guided by Confucian teachings
         2. Wives obey husbands or face death
         3. Little authority over property
         4. Females educated at home, brothers at school
            1. Upper class families – women expressed their literacy through creativity
         5. Must display social graces that matched husband’s rank and status
         6. Lower class women
            1. Gender relations more egalitarian
            2. Both worked in fields
            3. Women given respect as homemakers/mothers
            4. Some peasant women active in social protests/political demonstrations
            5. Girl children less valued
               1. Some sold into prostitution
               2. Some put to death
      5. Culture
         1. Castle architecture partially imitated Europe
            1. hilltop, stone, small windows, watchtowers, massive walls
         2. Drama
            1. More restrained drama replaced with kabuki theater
            2. Kabuki – emphasized violence, physical action and music
               1. Often depicted urban life – brothels, dance halls
               2. Criticized for its potentially corrupting effect
         3. Art
            1. Woodblock Print becomes established artform
            2. Borrowed from outsiders
               1. Japanese potters borrowed Korean ceramics techniques
               2. Experimented with western style oil painting
                  1. Perspective/interplay of light
               3. Reason for difference
                  1. Urban areas developing rapidly
                  2. Merchant and artisan class developing – patrons
                  3. Confucian values carried less weight
   10. Mughal India
       1. Political
          1. History
             1. Collapse of Delhi Sultanate in 1300s
                1. Began to lose territory
                2. Delhi taken and ransacked by Mongol Timur in 1398
             2. 1526, Babur – descendant of Mongols/Turks
                1. Migrated from steppes to India
                2. Had lost kingdom in central Asia – came from Afghanistan
                3. 12,000 men defeated over 100,000
             3. Used superior gunpowder technology to conquer northern India
             4. Empire lasted until mid 19th century
          2. Akbar – 1560-1605
             1. expanded empire through north and central India under control
             2. Established a bureaucracy
             3. patronized the arts
             4. encouraged cooperation between Hindus and Muslims – relatively tolerant
          3. Mughal Empire
             1. Mughal – Persian word for Mongol – English rich person called mogul
             2. Empire continued for 200 years 1530-1700s
             3. Mughal rulers – Muslim
                1. One of three great Muslim empires – Ottoman Empire/Safavid Persia
                   1. One of the “gunpowder” empires
                      1. Used military force and weapons technology to maintain power
                   2. Lost ground to nations of Europe during late 1600s
             4. Economics
                1. Thrived thanks to boom in Indian cotton trade
          4. Decline
             1. cost of warfare and defensive efforts to protect northern border
                1. Tried to attack Marathas in the south
             2. leaders failed to bridge differences between Hindus and Muslims
             3. Centralized government returned to local political organizations
             4. Decline of centralized power opened up to foreign control
                1. British
             5. Last emperor – Aurangzeb tried to impose orthodox Islam
                1. Undid earlier tolerant policies
                   1. Got rid of Hindus from public service
          5. European arrival
             1. set up trading ports and factories
             2. Portuguese set up on coast of Goa
             3. 1696 – British East India Company takes over Calcutta from Mughals
                1. Hindu princes allies to push out Mughal rule
       2. Social
          1. Treatment of women
             1. Akbar broke with Hindu/Muslim tradition regarding treatment of women
             2. encouraged widows to remarry
             3. outlawed sati – ritual suicide at husband’s funeral pyre
             4. encouraged merchants to arrange market days for women
                1. Allows those following purday – confinement – to get out
             5. By end of Mughal empire – changes had largely been discontinued
             6. Child marriage attempts to slow/end
             7. Female aristocrats
                1. awarded titles
                2. earned salaries
                3. owned land
                4. ran businesses
                5. some received education and expressed creative talents openly
             8. Women of all castes able to supplement income with woven products
             9. But…some ideas reflected Muslim law
                1. Cloistered inside the home – especially upper class women
                2. Women expected to serve under husbands
          2. Mughal art and architecture
             1. blended Muslim styles with those of other societies
             2. Mughal artists created miniatures – some of Christian religious subjects
             3. Architects blended white marble of Indian architecture
                1. W/ Muslim arches and domes
                2. Taj Mahal constructed by Shah Jahan as tomb for wife
             4. Dynastic patronage of the arts
             5. Substantial written works on Indian history and philosophy
   11. African Empires
       1. Political
       2. Social
       3. Case Study
          1. Kongo
          2. Benin
          3. Oyo
          4. Songhay

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

Major Developments

1. Questions of Periodization
   1. Major points
      1. Shift in power to the West
         1. Rise of the West with fall of China and India creates imbalance in power that favors Europeans for next 200 years
      2. World becomes smaller – almost all civilizations touched by trade
      3. New Empires – Spain, Portugal, England, France, Netherlands, Ottoman, Russian, Mughal, Ming
      4. Age of Gunpowder
   2. Changes at end of Postclassical Era
      1. Independent societies (Aztecs, Incas) falling apart
      2. Arab power declining
      3. New invasions – Mongols
      4. Ottoman Empire gains power
         1. Europeans threatened by new force to East
      5. Chinese flirt with trade, but Ming bureaucrats pull back
      6. Europe enters age of exploration
   3. Western Europe
      1. Unusual agricultural civilization
      2. New view of family – nuclear
         1. Love toward spouse
         2. Affection toward children
      3. Return to rational thought
      4. Stable political structures
         1. Absolute monarchy
         2. Parliamentary monarchies
      5. Religious reformers
         1. Reform the Church
         2. Protestant Reformation
   4. Effects of Global Economy
      1. By 1750, almost everyone knows everyone
      2. Food exchange – new staple crops to Africa (corn), Europe (potato)
      3. Unequal relationships – master, slave, owners, workforce
      4. Slaves and serfs
      5. Diseases
   5. Themes
      1. Declining emphasis of nomads
      2. Direct relationships – ambassadors replace intermediaries (Nomads)
      3. Gender relations remain patriarchal
      4. Labor relations change – master/slave – abuse of indigenous peoples
      5. A few commercial leaders get rich
      6. Environmental changes
         1. food, animal, disease exhange
      7. Native vegetation
         1. Deforestation for staple crops
         2. Grazing land for newly introduced beasts of burden
      8. Centralization of governments
         1. Modern government
            1. bureaucracies
            2. agencies
            3. admiralties
            4. treasuries
            5. general staff
            6. state banks
      9. Nation-states began to emerge
         1. solid political units with fixed borders
         2. sense of national unity
         3. populations relatively homogenous – language/ethnicity
   6. Larger Trends
      1. Americas overwhelmed by outsiders
      2. Three trends
         1. Western expansion
         2. Globalization of trade
         3. Gunpowder
      3. Reactions
         1. Embrace by choice
         2. Embrace by force
         3. Choose to remain independent, involve in trade on own terms
   7. Why 1450 and 1750
      1. 1450
         1. End of the Middle Ages
         2. Beginning of the Northern Renaissance – away from Italian city-states
         3. English evicted from France
         4. Unified France began to exercise its power
         5. Globalization of trade begins
         6. Direct contact between Europe and sub-Saharan Africa/Americas
         7. End of the Byzantine Empire
         8. Ottoman Turks rise to power

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Role of Gender in Empire
   1. Women secondary status most parts of globe – patriarchal
      1. social roles, economic opportunities, political influence
   2. Marriage remained primarily economic arrangement
      1. Method of gaining/transferring wealth and property
      2. Ensured inheritance of goods/assets by legitimate heirs
      3. With Protestant Reformation gained more marriages based on love
   3. Europe gained limited awareness of injustices toward women
   4. Europe – limited access to small # of women
      1. Noble/aristocratic women
      2. From emerging middle class
      3. Gained education
      4. Active in business
      5. Make scientific discoveries
      6. Become artists/writers
   5. Women discovered/developed ways to gain influence/advance desires
      1. Advising husbands/sons
      2. Educating children
      3. Running/help running business
      4. Managing household finances
   6. Generalizations
      1. Higher up in social class – more freedom to be involved in education/arts – servants did work
      2. Lower down social scale – more time spent w/ family, in fields, tending livestock
      3. Cities opened up opportunities for women for crafts/engage in commerce
      4. Higher status of women negatives
         1. Less value to contribution
         2. More need to be protected
      5. Women more valued in lower class – contribution more needed
      6. Urban/commercial vs. rural/agricultural vs. hierarchical/decentralized
   7. China
      1. Confucianism governed relationship of women to families
         1. Obey fathers and brothers and then husbands
         2. Always of subservience
         3. Influenced Japan
            1. Women obeyed fathers, husbands, and if widowed, sons
   8. Muslim world
      1. Harem shows how culture defines roles
         1. Initially Arabic women had freedom/rights
         2. Eventually adopted new ideologies
            1. Veiling from non-Arab converts
            2. Wealthy Muslims separated women in their households by placing in harems
               1. Special sections of house for all female members, young sons, servants

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Slave Systems and Slave Trade
   1. Slave Systems in the Americas
      1. Labor/Economic System
         1. Encomienda System – American Feudalism
            1. Peninsulares get land and # of slaves/native laborers
               1. In exchange, must protect them and convert them
            2. Not “intended” to be slave system, but essentially was
         2. Attempts at reform
            1. Treatment horrific – Christian missionaries appealed for reform
            2. Reduced strain on natives by bringing in Africans
            3. Replaced one oppressed group with another
            4. Both Africans and Natives ended up at bottom of social hierarchy
            5. Abolished in 1542
               1. Attempts by clergy to protest cruel treatment
               2. Government of Spain shifted to Madrid – new leadership
               3. Forced Spanish to bring in more African slaves
         3. African Slave Trade
            1. Existed before transatlantic voyages
               1. Portuguese captures slaves on coasts of Africa
               2. Africans had been raiding from ancient times
                  1. Put to work in gold and salt mines
                  2. Women often enslaved and traded
                     1. some become part of harem
                     2. Use as household servants
               3. trans-Saharan trade already brought slaves to Mediterranean world
               4. mid-15th century Portuguese opened up direct trade
            2. New World demand for labor
               1. Forced migration of millions
                  1. W. Africans already skilled in agriculture
               2. Changed history of New World
            3. Some African rulers cooperated with slave trade
               1. Portuguese brought into contact with powerful African kingdoms
                  1. Kongo, Benin, Mali and Songhay
                     1. Mali/Songhay enriched already by gold-salt trade
                     2. Kongo and Benin wanted to Christianize
                        1. 15th century rulers convert
               2. Characteristics of African kingdoms
                  1. own political and court traditions
                  2. monarchs rules with assistance of governing councils
                  3. artisans produced works in ivory, ebony and bronze
                  4. active trade in slaves, spices, ivory, textiles
                     1. slaves usually prisoners of war
                     2. captives of slave raids
            4. Europeans forced issue
               1. rounded up
               2. forced onto ships
               3. chained together
               4. Endured Middle Passage – part of triangular trade route
                  1. Hot, unventilated conditions – suffocation
                  2. Some starved
                  3. Killed in attempted revolts
               5. Taken to auction blocks
            5. Types of labor
               1. Sugar/coffee plantations
               2. Mines
            6. Slavery hereditary – children automatically slaves
            7. N. America vs. S. America Caribbean
               1. Families vs. Males
               2. Natural reproduction vs. existence based on trade
               3. Motivation for keeping alive differed
            8. Reached peak in 18th century
            9. Triangular trade
               1. European guns and other manufactured goods trade to Africans for slaves
               2. Slaves were transported from Africa to South America or West Indies
               3. Sugar, molasses and rum produced by slave labor traded to Europe for mfg goods
         4. Effects on Africa
            1. Guns and European glass became prized
               1. Often traded for human slaves
            2. Causes massive demographic shifts
               1. Brutal separation from family/culture
                  1. More males than females transported
                     1. Heavy work required on plantations
               2. Even if survived, absorbed into foreign culture that considered them property
                  1. Many Christianized, but…
                  2. Maintained parts of their language and culture
                  3. Unique cultural synthesis – African music, dress, and mannerisms mixed with Spanish and indigenous cultures in the Americas
            3. Reliance on importation of European technology
               1. Lessened technological development of African kingdoms

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Changes
   1. Global commerce
   2. Communications
      1. Telegraph
      2. Telephone
      3. Radio
      4. National postal system
      5. Steamship
      6. Railroad
   3. Technology
2. Changes in patterns of world trade
   1. World Trade
      1. Introduction
         1. Manufactured goods of the west and raw materials used to produce them – focus
         2. Atlantic World
            1. Plantation system and exploitation of newly independent L. American nations
         3. Methods of extracting natural resources changes
            1. Railroads and roads constructed – can go to the interior
         4. Instead of small, independent farm plots by natives > large plantations
            1. Crops chosen based on needs of industrialized West
      2. Latin American Trade – increased significantly
         1. Profitable sugar, cotton, cacao plantations
         2. Increased importance of slavery
         3. Monroe Doctrine – Britain takes larger role in recipient of goods
            1. Cut out colonization by other European countries
            2. More mfg goods go to L. America for raw materials
         4. Beef exports increase – refrigerated railroad car
         5. Products
            1. Cuba – tobacco and sugar
            2. Brazil – sugar and coffee – later rubber
            3. Mexico – copper, silver
            4. Peru – guano
            5. Chile – grain, copper
            6. Argentine – beef, grain, hides, wool
         6. Large landholders benefit at expense of smaller, independent farmers
         7. Dependent on cheaper foreign goods – better quality, cheaper to produce
            1. Wealth monopolized by a few
         8. Foreign investment gives capital
            1. But…many industrial/transporation projects owned by foreigners
      3. Trade with the Islamic World – decreased significantly
         1. Ottoman Empire weakened
            1. Revolts
            2. Disinterest in industrialization
               1. Christian/Jews in Empire carry on trade independently
         2. Domestic system producers can’t compete with industrialized nations
         3. Threat of competition lead to reforms
            1. Tanzimet reforms – facilitated trade, but came too late
         4. Made dependent on European imports and influence
            1. Foreign investment to bolster economy
            2. Extraterritoriality – Europeans allowed in Ottoman major commercial centers
         5. Suez Canal makes Egypt a significant commercial/political power
      4. Qing China and the Opium Trade – trade imbalance shifts
         1. From 1644 to 19th century trade benefited China
            1. Controlled out of few ports – Canton primarily
            2. Trade in Chinese tea, silk, porcelain for silver – basis of economy
               1. Trade imbalance – extremely profitable for China
         2. Britain annoyed with trade imbalance
            1. Indian opium switches balance
            2. Now silver flows out of China
         3. After Opium Wars eventually China open to Europe
            1. Nations map out spheres of influence
            2. Extraterritoriality
      5. Russia and World Trade
         1. Occupy backward position in trade and technology
         2. Exported some grain to w. Europe for Western machinery
            1. Difficult to compete due to outdated agricultural methods
         3. Desire to compete in world trade led to end of serfdom in 1861
      6. Japanese Entrance into World Trade
         1. Second Perry expedition opened Japanese ports in 1854
         2. Japan industrialized
            1. Trade relations with Netherlands, Great Britain, Russia
            2. Depended more on imports of raw materials
      7. End of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
         1. Ended due to
            1. Enlightenment thought
            2. religious conviction
            3. slave revolt in Haiti
         2. British ended role first – 1807- then encouraged others later to end also
            1. Britain seized hundreds of slave ships
            2. Slavery continued to Cuba and Brazil
               1. Cooperation of African rulers
         3. Didn’t totally end until 1867
   2. Industrial Revolution
      1. What is it?
         1. Civilizations no longer principally agricultural/rural
         2. Mass production of goods by means of machine power – industrialization
         3. Importance of trade and commerce skyrocketed
         4. Urbanization
         5. Capitalism rules supreme
         6. Metaphoric revolution – takes decades – no clear-cut beginning or end
         7. But…can’t underestimate effect
            1. Changed life in Europe more thoroughly than political revolutions
            2. New machines at hands of ordinary people
            3. Effected how people work, where they lived, how they views political problems
            4. Forced West to spread practices to colonies and exploit colonies economically
      2. History
         1. Began in Great Britain in mid 1700s
            1. Great Britain has large domestic deposits of coal
               1. Japan lacks coal – needed territorial expansion
            2. Enclosure movement – removal of land from farming
               1. Common area gone – loss of livelihood for peasants
               2. Now private land for private gain – you have motivation - mine
         2. Causes
            1. Agricultural Revolution – Second Agricultural Revolution 18th century
               1. Improved farming techniques
               2. Up to half the population left farms for cities
                  1. New industrial jobs becoming available
               3. Why so much more crop yield?
                  1. High yield crops – potatoes, corn from New World
                  2. Crop rotation instead of leaving fallow
                  3. New technologies
                     1. New machines for plowing, seeding, reaping
                     2. Chemical fertilizers
            2. Increase in population
               1. More food available
               2. Less chance for famine
               3. Life expectancy rose – population increase
                  1. 50% growth to 190 million from 1700-1800
               4. Decreased death rate
                  1. improved medical care
                  2. nutrition
                  3. hygiene sanitation
            3. Improvements in technology
               1. New sources of energy
                  1. steam power
                     1. Invention of the steam engine – James Watt
                        1. Improved by Watt, started by others
                     2. availability of sources of coal to fuel machinery
                  2. natural gas and petroleum later
                  3. fed industrial and transportation improvements
               2. New materials
                  1. steel
               3. New methods
                  1. factory system
                  2. Put factory near water-power source
               4. Inventions had always been occurring, but so many happen in 18th century
               5. New inventions for textile industry
                  1. Flying shuttle – sped up weaving process - 1733
                  2. Spinning jenny – spins vast amount of thread – 1764
                  3. Cotton gin – Eli Whitney – 1793 – quick processing of cotton
            4. Protestant work ethic
               1. Earthly success is a sign of personal salvation
                  1. Acquisition of capital and development of industry
               2. Value of hard work
            5. Domestic system not as effective
               1. cotton woven into cloth at homes
               2. Middlemen drop off wool/cotton at homes
               3. Women then sell cloth to middlemen > buyers
            6. Philosophical – Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
               1. Private ownership
               2. Let open market determine demand for goods and services
               3. free-market system/capitalism fits needs of individuals/nations
               4. laissez faire capitalism – government removes self from process
               5. Response to failing mercantilist policies
                  1. corrupt, inefficient
                  2. monarchies managed economies
         3. Phases
            1. Phase One
               1. Britain – 1780s – steam engine used to power textile machines
               2. Coal mining uses steam power
               3. James Watt patented designs in 1782 – efficient and relatively cheaper
            2. Phase Two
               1. Steam engine used in every economic field - adapted
                  1. “We sell what everyone desires and that is power.”
               2. Stimulate huge wave of invention and technological innovation
                  1. i. Transportation – steam ships, railroads
                  2. Electricity – telegraph – communications to the modern age
            3. Phase Three
               1. New energy sources, new raw materials and new inventions
               2. Bessemer Process – cheaper way to make steal – stronger/more useful
               3. Electricity overtakes steam and coal as energy source
               4. Commercial uses of petroleoum
         4. Factory System
            1. Replaces domestic system – putting out system
            2. Thousands of new products now created efficiently and inexpensively
               1. Interchangeable parts – Eli Whitney – machines and parts uniform
                  1. Repaired and replaced easily
               2. Assembly line
                  1. Add only one part to a finished product
      3. Transformative effects
         1. Vast numbers of Asians/Africans provide labor for plantations/mines
         2. Transportation Revolution
            1. Invention of the steam locomotive – 1820s
            2. Steamship – 1807
            3. Internal Combustion Engine – 1885 – Daimler – car
            4. Airplane – 1903 – speed of transportation increased a bit
         3. Urbanization
         4. Development of factory system
         5. New classes
            1. Birth of the working class – proletariat
               1. Masses who worked in factories, mines, other industry
               2. At first, made up of peasants who had abandoned agricultural work
               3. At first, poorly treated and barely compensated
                  1. Long hours – 14 hours a day, 6 days a week
                  2. Disgusting, crowded living conditions
                  3. Unsafe working conditions
                     1. fire, dangerous machines, poisonous/harmful materials
                  4. child labor common
            2. Rise of middle class
               1. merchants, bankers, factory owners, industrialists
               2. Became landowners of agriculture as well
                  1. Farmers rented, poor laborers employed
            3. Social status began to be determined more by wealth than family position
         6. Reform movements
            1. Number of people with influence (aristorcrats/middle class) see inhumanity
            2. Capitalism a positive, but need laws to keep abuses in check
            3. Government needs to act on behalf of the workers
            4. Some want to get rid of system, some want to merely reform it
               1. Some nations do both – capitalist and socialist
            5. Reform more possible in Great Britain/United States
               1. Has democracy, middle class, impact of Enlightenment
               2. Not so in Russia with autocracy
                  1. Marxism more attractive here
            6. Parliaments started passing laws that limited hours, child labor, safer working conditions
            7. Labor unions formed to bargain for the big 3 – or threaten to strike
               1. Factory owners realized happy, healthy, well-paid force productive
            8. Eventually led to communication revolution
               1. Telegraph
               2. Telephone
               3. Radio
         7. Major consequences
            1. countries with industrial technology had advanced military weapons
               1. Able to conquer people who did not have this technology
            2. countries needed access to raw materials to make finished products and markets
               1. colonies would fit both of these roles quite well
         8. Because started in Britain – Britain becomes dominant global nation of 19th century
         9. Need for communication improvements to facilitate organizing expanding businesses
            1. Telegraph – 1837 – communicate great distances in seconds
            2. Telephone – 1876 – Bell
            3. Radio – 1890s
            4. Lightbulb – 1879 – hey, we can work into the night
         10. Role of the individual changes
             1. Man not just working with machines, he becomes part of machine
                1. Working to the noise of machines
                2. Pace of work more rapid than at home
             2. Consistency of function more important than independent thought
         11. Abuse of labor
             1. Initially overworked, underpaid, unsafe working conditions
                1. 16 hour workdays, children as young as 6
         12. Living conditions change
             1. No longer fresh air and sunshine – air pollution and hazardous machinery
             2. No longer seasonal adjustments to work pattern – same product day after day
             3. Leads to despair and hopelessness
             4. Minimal police protection at first
         13. Literature created to reflect times
             1. Charles Dickens writes of social ills of industrialization
         14. Philosophical – Karl Marx – Communist Manifesto
             1. working class eventually revolt and take control of means of production
             2. Instruments of power – government, courts, police, Church on side of the rich
                1. uprising would make these instruments of power unnecessary
             3. saw flaw in capitalist system
         15. Conservative backlash – don’t like the changes
             1. Luddites – destroyed factory equipment, protested working conditions/wages
                1. Government exacts harsh punishments to prevent this type of protest
                   1. Sides with the wealthy…surprise
         16. Changes urban life
             1. bus service, sidewalks, street lights, steam heating of homes, icebox refrigeration, indoor plumbing, sewing machines, canned food, urban sewage systems, medicine
         17. Affected navies and armies of all countries
             1. Steam powered battleships, modern rifles, modern artillery, machine gun
             2. United States Civil War – first industrial war – 1861-1865
                1. Franco-Prussian – 1870-1871
         18. Influence of Industrial Nations over Nonindustrial
             1. Obviously they are conquered, forced
             2. Businessmen/industrialists struck deals with local aristocrats/politicians
                1. Encouraged monoculture – extraction of one, small set of crops/resources
                2. Monoculture – damages environment and retards economy
                3. “Banana Republic” – derogatory term
                4. Exploits native workers
                   1. Money ends up in hands of a small number of aristocrats/politician
         19. Changes after 1850
             1. Societies received higher wages, shorter working hours allowing leisure activities
                1. Leisure time led to popular interest in theater and sports
             2. Additional employment opportunities as secretaries, salespeople, clerical jobs
                1. Some filled by women, especially unmarried women
             3. Clothing more affordable – general population can now wear similar fashions
             4. Popular consumption led to advertising campaigns
      4. Differential timing in different societies
         1. Factors of production needed for industrialization - Britain
            1. Land – including natural resources such as coal and iron ore
            2. Labor – including thousands of dispossessed farmers evicted after enclosure
            3. Capital – banking and investment interests capable of funding costs of factories and machinery
            4. Entrepreneurship – groups of individuals with the knowledge of combinging land, labor and capital to establish factory production
         2. What geographic factors needed to industrialize
            1. Industrial growth measured by iron, coal, steel, cotton production – access?
            2. Next United States, then Western Germany, France, Netherlands, N. Italy
            3. Those in South and East Europe lagged behind – agriculture based
            4. Russia totally backward thanks to serfdom - reliance on agriculture
         3. United States
            1. By early 1800s textile factory system transported to US
            2. Production methods/technological improvements spurred industry/railroads
         4. other European nations
            1. France and Germany complex industrial economies in 19th century
            2. Russia remains agricultural country
               1. Government sponsored programs turn of the century
               2. Russian banking system and protective tariffs later to protect industry
               3. Russia ranked 4th in steel production by 1900
         5. Japan
            1. Partial Modernization under Tokugawa Japan
               1. Partially modernization both economically and socially
                  1. Population growth steady – increased urbanization
                  2. Agriculture – fewer people producing more – Western technique
                     1. Allowed for more working class – urbanization
                  3. Trade, commerce, manufacturing increasingly important
                  4. National infrastructure needed – roads, canals, ports
                  5. Merchant class emerges – becomes middle class
                  6. Awareness of scientific/technological knowledge from West – few
               2. Problems with partial modernization
                  1. Threatened 5% aristocracy
                     1. Urbanization, Western learning, growing merchant class
                  2. So…modernization controlled in early stages
                     1. Military class – samurai – control gunpowder
            2. Meiji Restoration – second half 19th century – quickly industrialized
               1. Outside forces forced change – Commodore Perry
                  1. Friendly words, but naval bombardment for show
                  2. Next five years, other European countries pressure Japan
                  3. Looks like they might be headed down path of other nations
               2. Samurai leaders in southern provinces push to end foreign influence
                  1. Sat-Cho Alliance – fires on foreign ships
                     1. Fired back by Europe – reason to overthrow shogun
                     2. Install Emperor Meiji to power
                        1. First emperor in 1000 years to have power
         6. Some Latin American countries
            1. Seen as sources for natural resources and markets
            2. Not so much as potential industrial nations
               1. Hampered by lack of local capital for investment
                  1. Industrialization would need to be financed by foreigners
         7. Eventually to Asia and Africa in 20th centuries
         8. Comparing Industrialization in Great Britain and Japan
            1. Sources of Capital
               1. Britain
                  1. private entrepreneurs, capitalists
                  2. Limited foreign investment
               2. Japan
                  1. Government investment in initial states
                  2. Zaibatsu – few wealthy banking, industrial families – developed large business interests
                     1. Conglomerates that bought up textile mills and factories
                  3. Limited foreign investment
            2. Energy Resources
               1. Britain
                  1. Large domestic deposits of coal for steam power
                  2. Large domestic deposits of iron for building machinery
                  3. Timber running out, had to move to coal
                     1. Coal mining required machine power to pump water
               2. Japan
                  1. Has to import energy sources
            3. Availability of Technology
               1. Developed originally in Britain
                  1. Textile mills
                  2. First steam engine
                  3. First steel-making process
                  4. Replaced other methods of powering machines
                     1. wind, water, animal
               2. Japan
                  1. Had to import machinery
            4. Pool of workers
               1. Britain
                  1. almost doubling population in 1700s – 5>9 million
                  2. clothing industry – piecework by poorly paid women – sweatshops
                  3. Ennclosure Acts – pool of laborless workers
               2. Japan
                  1. Also rapid population growth
                  2. Clothing industry – sweatshops as well
            5. Transportation System
               1. Britain
                  1. Internal railway system
                  2. Canals
                  3. Shipping companies for export
                  4. Small size
               2. Japan
                  1. Internal railway system
                  2. Shipping companies for export
            6. Societal Changes
               1. Britain
                  1. Reform movements
                     1. Class tension, labor unions, socialism
                     2. Women’s suffrage
                     3. Universal education
                  2. Middle class
                  3. Leisure time
               2. Japan
                  1. some increased opportunity for education for women
                  2. continued reliance on traditional family life
                     1. subordinate position of women
                  3. Class tensions
            7. Summary of differences
               1. Both followed similar paths, but Japan on fast forward
                  1. A few decades what it took Britain a century
                  2. Didn’t have to invent everything – just implement advances
               2. Private corporations rose up
                  1. Industrialists like Mitsubishi family
               3. Factories built
               4. Urbanization increased dramatically
               5. Reform instituted
      5. Mutual relation of industrial and scientific developments
         1. Inventions pushed industrial revolution
         2. Industrialization
            1. Made European nations richer > more technologically adept > boosted need for scientific knowledge to explore
            2. New weaponry in hands of westerners
         3. New inventions needed to extract resources from earth – colonies
         4. Cotton gin made textile revolution possible
            1. Extraction of clean cotton thread from raw cotton balls
      6. Commonalities
         1. Goes through the same process whether 18th century Britain as 20th century Nigeria
            1. Factories built in areas near towns/cities
               1. These built near sources of power, transportation, pool of workers
            2. Shift of people from countryside to city - urbanization
               1. Due to…caused by…
                  1. Poor harvests
                  2. Too little land
                  3. Too many people to feed
            3. Middle class forms
               1. Factory managers
               2. Shopowners
               3. Professionals – lawyers, accountants
            4. Brutal working conditions/unsafe and unhealthy living condition leads to reform
               1. Political reform
               2. Socioeconomic reform
                  1. Muckrakers – propaganda writers
                  2. Settlement houses – local buildings for kids/moms – YMCAs
      7. Comparing scientific revolution to industrial revolution
         1. Both changed the world
            1. Knowledge spread and improvements made across cultures
            2. Though there were patents, scientists/inventors built on ideas of colleagues
            3. Collaborative effort allows for constant improvement
         2. Scientific Revolution – discovering, learning, evaluating, understanding the natural world
         3. Industrial Revolution – applying that understanding to natural ends
      8. Industrial Revolution Flow Chart
         1. Effects
            1. Increase in need for resources and markets
               1. Colonization
                  1. Rise of nationalism
                     1. Independence movements and revolutions
            2. Increase in urbanization
               1. Increase in social unrest
                  1. Rise of nationalism
                     1. Independence movements and revolutions
                  2. Changes in social thought – from Enlightenment ideals
                     1. Women’s Emancipation movements
                     2. End of the slave trade
                     3. Rise of unions and laws to protect workers
                     4. Rise of Marxism
                     5. Independence movements and revolutions
            3. Improves agricultural techniques which then fuels more industrial revolution
   3. Changes in patterns of world trade
      1. European nations seize trading networks from local/regional control
         1. Connected them into a truly global network

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Changes in social and gender structure
   1. Industrial Revolution
      1. Changes Gender
         1. Poor women who had taken care of home/worked in fields shifted to
            1. factories/sweatshops
            2. putting out system – little time/space for domestic work
            3. Actually had more “opportunity” than middle/upper class
               1. But I doubt they’d be too excited
            4. Still paid less than men
            5. By end of century, most working women were single
            6. Reform laws limited working hours of women
            7. Women lost manufacturing jobs of the domestic (putting out) system
               1. Expected to return to role as homemaker/childcare provider
         2. Upper class women
            1. More wealth/more servants to manage
            2. Less influence/power outside the home than in previous eras
         3. New group – middle class housewives
            1. Lived on outskirts of cities – with servant or two
            2. Husbands went to work in white-collar jobs
            3. Like upper class women, isolated from the work world
            4. Relegated to afternoon social calls/drinking tea
            5. Victorian Age idealized women
               1. Manners/etiquette counted
               2. Nothing distasteful should be seen by women
            6. Contradiction between what was appropriate for middle class and the realities of the lower class pushed middle class to demand change – led movements
            7. As men earn money, women return to traditional roles
               1. Power diminishes
            8. This is the group that starts organizing to demand rights/suffrage
            9. New culture of consumption meant to free up women to pursue activities outside of home
               1. Sewing machines, clocks, stoves, refrigerators, ovens
         4. Factory laborers
            1. Have to work long hours and fulfill traditional role as caretaker for husband, children, home
         5. Social mobility – ability to move from one class to the next
            1. middle class expands
            2. standard of living improves
         6. Turned husband into wage earner and wife into homemaker
      2. Changes social class
         1. New aristocrats
            1. Those who became rich based on industrial success
            2. Old money vs. new money
            3. Wealth based on Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
               1. Private ownership
         2. Middle class
            1. managers, accountants, ministers, lawyers, doctors, skilled professionals
         3. Working class
            1. factory workers + peasant farmers
            2. New twist – now the massive lower class is working side by side – urbanization
            3. Able to daily see the huge class discrepancy
               1. Saw elite gain wealth at their expense
            4. Under feudalism – people resigned to fate – that’s the way it had always been
               1. But…this was a new phenomenon – saw change before their eyes
   2. Commercial and demographic developments
   3. Emancipation of serfs/slaves
      1. Attracted reformers’ interests – abolishing African slave trade/emancipating Russian serfs
         1. Abolishing African slave trade
            1. Safe havens for former slaves
               1. Sierra Leone – safe haven for former slaves, British colony
               2. Liberia – colonization scheme for freed slaves from U.S.
         2. Emancipating Russian serfs
            1. Serfdom continued until 1861
            2. Causes/Effects of serfdom
               1. Dissatisfaction with their lives led to acts of violence/rebellion
               2. Can’t leave the land – Russia doesn’t have pool of factory labor
               3. Russia lacked internal market for goods – no one has money
               4. Lacked incentive to work harder, grow more, improve land
            3. Emancipation of 1861
               1. Now free, no longer bound to land owned by large landowners
               2. serfs could now take more work off of land – available for factories
               3. but…indebted freemen did not improve agricultural output
                  1. Like sharecropping vs. slavery in the American South
               4. Former serfs, peasants, now had to pay for land
                  1. Valuations and taxes high, almost an impossible task
      2. But…slavery actually expands before it diminishes
         1. Eli Whitney’s cotton gin necessitated more slaves in American South
            1. Might have died out earlier – cotton farming a waste of time
         2. Cotton gin requires a ton of cheap labor to stick cotton in machine
   4. Tension between work patterns
   5. Ideas about gender
      1. Although in most societies status of women remained secondary, great changes
      2. In West, greater awareness of unfair and unequal treatment began to spread
         1. Stimulated by Enlightenment theories
         2. Stimulated by active role of women in American and French revolutions
      3. Industrial Revolution altered the conditions under which women worked
         1. Shifted workplace away from the farm
         2. Men and women both worked in mines, factories, spaces away from the home
         3. Created a domestic sphere and separate working sphere
      4. Europe and US women of lower classes compelled to enter workplace
         1. Bore double burden of serving as primary homemakers and caregivers for their families
      5. After mid-1800s, # of working women declined
         1. Women of middle/upper class rarely worked anyway
         2. Wages for industrial workers increased
            1. Jobs more desirable to men
         3. Laws restricting number of hours that women and children could work
      6. Cult of domesticity – stressing the women’s place in the home – dominated Western culture
         1. Men’s in the workplace
      7. Certain occupations open to women – child care, teaching, domestic household work, nursing
      8. Strong vigorous women’s movements appeared in Europe, Canada and the United States
         1. Demanded suffrage – voting rights
         2. Equal opportunity to work
         3. Equal pay
         4. Temperance
      9. Handful of European nations – gave women the right to vote before World War I
      10. Move toward women’s equality slower in non-Western societies
          1. in some educational level rose
          2. property rights rose
          3. Like West, women could work in certain occupations – agriculture, artisans, teachers
          4. Like West – lower class women tended to enter workplace

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Demographic and environmental changes
   1. Migrations
      1. Extreme hardships persisted – people dreamed of better life by escaping cruelties of home
      2. 1800-1920 50 million Europeans migrated to North/South America
      3. Push factors
         1. Famine – Ireland
         2. Anti-Semitism – Russia
         3. Religious toleration
         4. Poverty
         5. Joblessness
      4. Industrialization
         1. Substantial numbers – especially young adults migrated from country to the city
            1. Upset makeup of traditional family
         2. Movement of middle class away from city to the suburbs
      5. Patterns of immigration
         1. European settler colonies came into conflict with native populations
            1. Also exposed indigenous populations to disease
               1. Not as severe a reaction as Americas
               2. Hawaiians and Maoris
         2. Need for laborers in Americas brought massive immigration from Europe
         3. Religious persecution
            1. Russian pogroms on Jews
   2. End of the Atlantic Slave Trade
      1. Demise from economic and practical considerations
         1. Too expensive to obtain slaves
      2. Growing revulsion among Western countries
         1. Moral, ethical and religious reasons
            1. Greater number of citizens/politicians unwilling to continue
         2. Turning point when Great Britain – 1807/1808 – wanted to make slavery illegal in all parts
            1. During peace settlement following Napoleonic Wars
               1. Great Britain convinces other countries to follow
            2. Eventually spread to Americas
               1. Lastly Cuba and Brazil
               2. America half slave and half free
                  1. Make slave trade illegal first
                  2. Civil War needed to make slavery illegal
         3. Even though illegal – still 2 million traded in 1800s
            1. Islamic states of West Africa still kept slaves – Zanzibar
               1. Close to 5 million
         4. Attempts by West to end slavery
            1. Abolitionist movement
            2. Recolonization in Africa
               1. Sierra Leone – British colony
               2. Liberia – American Colonization Society
            3. Eventually British ships blockaded West African shoreline
               1. Hunted down slave ships
               2. Bombarded coastal fortresses
               3. France and US join haphazardly
         5. Effects of the slave trade on Africa
            1. Some believe it led Africans to rely more on slave trade than before
            2. Loss of population growth
            3. Internal trade relies more on importation of foreign goods
               1. guns, textiles, alcohol
               2. Doesn’t give Africans a chance to produce goods by themselves
            4. Some argue it didn’t have that much of an effect
               1. Small proportion actually taken
            5. Coastal kingdoms become ruled by warlords/merchants
               1. Demanded kings given slaves to satisfy debts
            6. Introduction of guns increased likelihood of intertribal war
               1. Made these wars more lethal
            7. Economic slump after end of slave trade – many regions became quite wealthy
               1. Slump leaves regions open to foreign takeover in 1800s
            8. Antislavery military efforts by British gave Europeans feeling they could intervene
               1. Set precedent that it was OK to conquer
   3. New Birthrate Patterns
      1. Life expectancy rose – population increase
         1. 50% growth to 190 million from 1700-1800
      2. Decreased death rate
         1. improved medical care
         2. ii. nutrition
         3. hygiene sanitation
            1. gains in life expectancy in developing nations still small
   4. Population Revolution in the West
      1. Middle of 18th century – population exploded
         1. End of episodes of epidemic disease
         2. Improved diets – increased consumption of potatoes
         3. Larger number of healthy adults increased birth rates
         4. Lower infant mortality rates
         5. Larger populations equal ready supply of labor
      2. After 1850 rates change again
         1. Majority of population resides in cities
         2. Drop in death rate
            1. More hygienic practices
            2. Louis Pasteur – germ theory
         3. Drop in birth rate
            1. Families don’t need to produce large families to serve as laborers on farm
   5. Population Growth in the Non-West
      1. Population in Latin America doubled in 19th century
      2. China – development of sweet potato
         1. Growing population encouraged need for improved agricultural methods/technology
      3. Japan – improvements in nutrition and medical care
         1. Like China – strain in natural resources
   6. Food supply
      1. More food available
      2. Less chance for famine
   7. Natural Resources
      1. Stealing is cheaper than dealing
         1. Gained incredible wealth
            1. Colonize, drain natural resources, don’t compensate natives
         2. Finished goods then sold to colonies
            1. Not allowed to buy from anyone else
         3. Colonial powers became rich at expense of colonies
      2. Europe had coal/iron ore, but climate restricted what could be grown
         1. Need goods from tropical climates – rubber/cotton
   8. Due to colonization – world now exposed to European values
   9. Landscape changes
      1. Limited raw materials depleted faster than at any time in human history
   10. Increase in pollution
       1. Water supplies contaminated by human sewage and industrial waste
       2. Dark skies from caol-produced smoke
          1. Rickets – disease of the bones – underexposure to sunlight
   11. Population growth
       1. Causes
          1. Greater agricultural efficiency
          2. Medical advances
          3. Gradually rising prosperity
       2. Population of Europe
          1. 175 million in 1800 > 423 million by 1900
   12. Urbanization
       1. Most jobs in or near cities
       2. Old cities increase in size – London passes 1 million, same with Paris, New York
       3. New cities start popping up – especially if near energy source
       4. Conditions dismal
          1. Overcrowded – disease can spread easily
             1. Cholera/tuberculosis
          2. Water and air pollution horrific
             1. Modern sewage systems rare
             2. Heating through coal and wood
   13. Increased general level of prosperity
       1. At first, industrialization –generates incredible wealth quickly, but it sticks to a few people
          1. First 50 years only middle class really benefit
       2. In 1850, when Industrial Revolution essentially over – working class starts to benefit
          1. Benefits start to widen out – slow process
          2. Need reform

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Diverse interpretations
   1. What are the debates over the utility of modernization theory as a framework for interpreting events in this period and the next?
      1. Modernization/Westernization
         1. Nations become economically prosperous
         2. Various social changes occur
            1. Improved health care
            2. More educational opportunities
            3. More rights for women
         3. Desire for democratic government will evolve
            1. People learn more about what the world holds
            2. Give up old ways and attitudes
         4. Western Europe cited as proof that in time developing nations will evolve into developed nations
      2. Dependency Theory
         1. Developing nations economically dependent will remain
            1. Have in past and present history of developed nations draining their resources
               1. Export agricultural products
               2. Export natural resources
               3. Production of assembly-line workers/sweatshop labor
            2. Developed nation with access to processing
               1. Example oil
                  1. Make more money from refined gasoline than crude oil
         2. Dependency is inherent in capitalism
      3. Marxist Theorists
         1. Dispute both theories from above
         2. Socialism only way that developing nations can become viable economic entitites
   2. What are the debates about the causes of serf and slave emancipation in this period and how do these debates fit into the broader comparisons of labor systems?
   3. What are the debates over the nature of women’s roles in this period and how do these debates apply to industrialized areas and how do they apply in colonial societies?
2. IX. Major Comparisons and Snapshots
   1. Compare the causes and early phases of the industrial revolution in western Europe and Japan
   2. Comparative revolutions (compare two of the following: Haitian, American, French, Mexican, and Chinese)
   3. Compare reaction to foreign domination in: the Ottoman Empire, China, India, and Japan
   4. Comparative nationalism
   5. Compare forms of western intervention in Latin America and in Africa
   6. Compare the roles and conditions of women in the upper/middle classes with peasantry/working class in western Europe

Examples of What You Need to Know

Below are examples of the types of information you are expected to know contrasted with examples of those things you are not expected to know for the multiple-choice section.

• Women's emancipation movements, but not specific suffragists
• The French Revolution of 1789, but not the Revolution of 1830
• Meiji Restoration, but not Iranian Constitutional Revolution
• Jacobins, but not Robespierre
• Causes of Latin American independence movements, but not specific protagonists
• Boxer Rebellion, but not the Crimean War
• Suez Canal, but not the Erie Canal
• Muhammad Ali, but not Isma'il
• Marxism, but not Utopian socialism
• Social Darwinism, but not Herbert Spencer

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Political revolutions and independence movements
   1. Major political revolutions
      1. Centralized monarchies the norm, but there’s a variety
         1. Constitutional limits in Great Britain
         2. Total autocracy in France
            1. Standard method of ruling
            2. Absolute monarch with aristocrats that control land, wealth, political influence
      2. Common strands in modern revolutions
         1. influence of the intellectual movements and ideas
            1. democratic principles of the Enlightenment
            2. Marxist principles that underlie Communism
         2. Importance of peasants and urban workers as actors in revolutions
         3. shift to authoritarian rule in movements that began as democratic uprisings
      3. Major themes
         1. Enlightenment philosophies that education and reason could improve society
            1. Spurned revolutions in N. America, France, Haiti
         2. Latin American independence movements flourished first part of 19th century
         3. Turn of the century – early 20th – Chinese dynastic rule ends
      4. United States
         1. Causes/Impetus
            1. Frustrating mercantile policy of Great Britain
               1. Drove American nuts – OK when they weren’t enforced, but…
               2. Common theme in revolutions – frustration with economic exploitation
            2. Dependent status of colonies symbolized by “no taxation without representation”
            3. Enlightenment ideas
               1. Inspired the revolution itself
                  1. John Locke – social contract
                     1. People gave rights in exchange for gov’t maintaining order
                     2. People could overthrow gov’t if they don’t
               2. Inspired the type of government that was created after it succeeded
            4. Debt from Seven Years War – French and Indian War
               1. Changed the boundaries of two empire’s worldwide possessions
               2. Felt Americans should share in costs of war
               3. Frustration with “taxation without representation”
            5. Restrictions after Seven Years War
               1. Couldn’t migrate to Appalachian territories
                  1. Brits couldn’t protect Americans w/ Native Americans
         2. Stages
            1. Noncompliance with British laws
            2. Reprisals by the British
            3. Protests: boycotts, violence, letters and declarations to the British crown
               1. Famous pamphlet – Common Sense – Thomas Paine
                  1. Before – most colonists apathetic – British sympathy
                     1. Or…Britain too strong to defeat
                  2. Said monarchy takes away from American’s natural rights
                     1. Printing press became powerful tool
            4. Cycle of escalating protests and reprisals
               1. Boston Harbor – terrorism > British troops stationed in Boston
               2. Conflict at Lexington and Concord
            5. Declaration of Independence – 1776
            6. War
            7. Alliances with Britain’s enemies
               1. France more than happy to help out
                  1. 1777 French committed ships, soldiers, weapons and money
                  2. 1781 French and British troops cornered Cornwallis
            8. Defeat of the British forces
            9. Peace Treaty, 1783
         3. Outcome/Effects
            1. Establishment of the United States of America in 1776
            2. Recognition by other nations and finally the British
            3. Loss of territory and revenues by the British
      5. France
         1. Causes/Impetus
            1. Long-term effects of rule by absolute monarchy
            2. Policies of Louix XVI
            3. National debt and financial collapse
               1. Living in lavish luxury at Versailles
               2. France’s war debts
               3. Droughts damaging French harvests
               4. Spending of Marie Antoinette
               5. Catalysts
                  1. Inflation, unemployment, poor harvests, food shortages
               6. Nobility scoff at spending restrictions
               7. Louis XVI needed to raise taxes
                  1. Unfair tax system – wealthy First/Second Estates exempt
            4. Privileges accorded the nobility; abuses
               1. Wide social and economic gap between ordinary citizens and the country’s elite
               2. Second Estate – 2% of opulation
            5. Privileges accorded the Roman Catholic Church; abuses
               1. First Estate – 1% of population
            6. Rise of the bourgeoisie; rivalry for power with nobles and Church
               1. Frustrated middle class – possessed wealth and education
               2. Seen as equals to the peasants of the Third Estate
            7. Conditions of peasants; series of poor harvests
            8. Conditions of urban workers; sans culottes
            9. Enlightenment ideas; philosophers
               1. Many of whom were French
               2. Made powerful arguments in favor of
                  1. Fair government
                  2. Equal treatment of all citizens
                  3. Separation of governmental powers
                  4. Civil rights
            10. 11. Example of the American revolution
         2. Stages
            1. Four stages
               1. Aristocrats challenge king
                  1. Louis XVI calls Estates General – hadn’t met in 175 years
                     1. Bourbon monarchs ruled through divine right
               2. Bourgeoisie challenge voting process in Estates-General
                  1. Three Estates – clergy, nobility, everybody else
                  2. Third Estate wants sweeping changes that would hurt others
                     1. Other two outvote 2-1
                     2. Third Estate declared themselves National Assembly
                        1. Tennis Court Oath
                        2. Demanded a Constitution – not just change
                  3. King pressures other two to join National Assembly
               3. Popular revolution, the people in the cities, Paris especially support bourgeoisie
                  1. Storming the Bastille – July 14, 1789 starts wave of revolution
                     1. Found out Louis XVI actually summoned troops
                     2. Sans-culottes radicals utilized for muscle
               4. Peasants in the countryside support the revolution in Paris
                  1. Peasants attack nobility and clergy
                  2. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette brought to Paris for “safety”
            2. French Republic: National Convention
               1. Adopt Declaration of the Rights of Man
                  1. Natural rights based on the Enlightenment, English Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence
                  2. “liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression”
                  3. Guaranteed freedoms of the press/religion – increased voting rights
                  4. These ideas swept across Europe – encouraging other revolts
                     1. Freedom, equality, rule of law
               2. Abolished the feudal system
               3. Altered the monopoly of the Catholic Church
                  1. Freedom of worship
               4. 1791 – Constitutional monarchy
                  1. Angers those who want to get rid of king
                  2. ii. Angers those who want to preserve feudal system
               5. Austria (Marie Antoinette’s home country)/Prussia invade to restore monarchy
               6. New constitution – Jacobins, National Assembly replace king > republic
               7. Reign of Terror
                  1. Afraid of foreign threats (Britain and Spain join)
                     1. Afraid of domestic chaos
                  2. Committee of Public Safety – all powerful enforcer of revolution
                     1. Beheading tens of thousands of Frenchmen
                  3. Went too far, leader Robespierre eventually beheaded
                  4. Universal male suffrage - precedent
                  5. Universal military conscription - precedent
            3. Directory
               1. Five man government – 1795
               2. Weak at dealing with domestic problems
               3. Good at building up military
                  1. Great strategy – focus on issues abroad – take mind off of domestic problems
            4. Unsolved problems
               1. Continuing war with Great Britain, Austria
               2. Corrupt politicians
               3. Bread riots
               4. Anger over policies related to the Church
               5. Growing royalist support
            5. Cycle of revolution
               1. Initially – liberal nobility + wealthy middle class
               2. This doesn’t go far enough – radical representatives of poor take over
               3. This is too radical – end up moving to middle – conservative backlash
               4. People want the good ol’ days – go back to an autocrat
         3. Outcome/effects
            1. National Assembly – Moderate Phase – 1789-1792
               1. Formal abolition of feudalism
               2. Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen
               3. Revocation of privileges of the Roman Catholic Church
                  1. Reorganization of the Church under the state
               4. Set up limited monarchy – Louis XVI sat on throne, but power to assembly
               5. Didn’t go far enough
                  1. Rights not extended to Jews, Protestants, blacks
                  2. Not extended to women
                     1. Major role as intellectuals, organizers, workers of Revolt
            2. National Convention – Legislative Assembly – Radical Phase – 1792-1794
               1. Abolished the monarchy and the aristocracy
                  1. As protection from foreign threat
                     1. Attack from Austria/German states
                     2. Emigres plotting return of throne
                  2. Royal family even plotted with nobles from foreign countries
                     1. Eventually captured trying to escape France
               2. Extended suffrage to more but not all male citizens
               3. People getting more ticked off
                  1. Economy worsening
                  2. Threat of foreign invasion
                     1. Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Britain try to maintain monarchy – a bit nervous about precedent
               4. Committee of Public Safety
                  1. Mobilized entire economy for combat
                  2. Instituted world’s first national draft
               5. Reign of Terror (Jacobin Club)
                  1. Searching for spies, traitors, counterrevolutionaries
                  2. Civil liberties irrelevant – no due process
                  3. Even other radical parties targeted
                  4. 300,000 arrested – 30,000 put to death
            3. Directory – Thermidorian Reaction – 1794-1799
               1. Robespierre killed
               2. 5-man council, absolute power
            4. Napoleon “asked” to assume power
               1. 1799 overthrows Directory
               2. “Voted” in as First Consul by popular vote
               3. Creates new Constitution (4th Constitution)
               4. Good or bad
                  1. Bad
                     1. wars lasted for years, cost a ton, killed a ton
                     2. Denied women basic rights
                     3. Censored speech and the press
                  2. ii. Good
                     1. Bank of France
                     2. Napoleonic Code – Civil Law Code – French law
                     3. Established universities
                     4. Granted religious freedom
               5. Domestic reforms
                  1. Agriculture, infrastructure, public education altered
                  2. Normalized relations with the Church
                  3. Restored tolerance of other religions
                  4. Napoleonic Codes – equality of Frenchmen
                     1. Paternalistic – women/children severely limited
                     2. Recognized basic rights of men
               6. External impact
                  1. Fended off aggressors and made France an aggressor
                  2. Conquered Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Italy
                  3. Dissolved Holy Roman Empire
                     1. Becomes confederacy of German states
                  4. Makes himself king of new empire
                  5. Power undermined by nationalistic uprisings and guerilla warfare
                  6. Defeated in Russia
                     1. Lured into Moscow, but then city was burned
                        1. No way to house troops, hung out to dry
                     2. Retreat back to France turns into disaster
                  7. Army decimated – Napoleon exiled
               7. Austria, Russia and Britain unite to overthrow Napoleon again upon return
                  1. Finally exiled to St. Helena – eventually dies
               8. Congress of Vienna – 1815
                  1. Maintain balance of power in Europe – no major wars for 100 yrs
                  2. France not punished, just returned borders to pre-Napoleon levels
                  3. Reaffirmed absolute rule
                     1. returned monarchs to France, Spain, Holland, Italy
                  4. Ignored ideals, rights established during French Revolution
                     1. Return Europe to the good ol days or autocracy
                     2. Agree to fight liberal reforms
                     3. Political controls actually tighten
                        1. Limited freedom of expression, press, censorship
                        2. More secret police forces
                  5. Very conservative
                  6. Peace could be secured if equilibrium of geography/military kept
                     1. Austrian Klemens von Metternich’s Congress System
                        1. Concert of Europe
               9. Impact of French Revolution
                  1. Didn’t the Revolution fail?
                     1. Dream of popular government faded – Comm Pub Safety
                        1. Napoleon a dictator
                        2. Old royal family actually restored to power
                  2. But…
                     1. It did do away with absolute monarchy
                     2. monarchs still sat on thrones – no longer all-powerful
                        1. Yield to ministers, parliaments, assemblies
                     3. Gov’ts had to be more attentive to people’s needs
                     4. Starts trend of greater popular representation
                     5. Can no longer ignore the voices of the people
                     6. Spread the ideals of the revolution outside France
                        1. Thanks to Napoleon
                     7. Creates spirit of nationalism throughout Europe
                        1. Reaction to Napoleon’s invasion
               10. Aftermath of Napoleonic Wars
                   1. Spirit of conservatism following 1815 defeat of Napoleon
                      1. Restore monarchs
                      2. Maintain balance of power to prevent future conflicts
                   2. Liberalism
                      1. Protect the rights of the properties class
                   3. Radicalism
                      1. Broader suffrage and social reforms for the lower class
                   4. Nationalism unites Italy and Germany
         4. Comparing American and French Revolutions
            1. US – colonial uprising against imperial power – independence movement
            2. French Revolution – more of a revolution
               1. Actually want to change political/economic system
               2. Not merely a transfer of power from one elite group to another
               3. Social-political structure radically changes
                  1. For US/Britain – structure remains essentially the same
            3. But US a revolution – set precedent for colonies breaking away from empires
               1. First to break away since Age of Exploration – 300 years
               2. Ideas adopted in Declaration of Independence, Constitution and French Revolution borrowed around the world
         5. Politics in Europe – 1815-1848
            1. Great Britain
               1. History of parliamentary system
               2. Slow progress toward liberties
               3. Less than 5% actually participated in parliament
               4. Lower classes lobby for more powers
                  1. Govt gradually gives in to demands to avoid rebellion
            2. France
               1. Unlike Britain’s gradual reforms, France has a few mini-revolutions
               2. Louis XVI family returns – parliamentary monarchy
               3. Replaced by “Citizen King” – but still didn’t go far enough
               4. Leads to revolution of 1848
            3. Central and Eastern Europe
               1. Remained more oppressive
               2. Prussia remained militaristic and authoritarian for years
                  1. Though technically emperor shared power with legislature
               3. Russia – tsar continued to be all-powerful
                  1. Serfdom kept people down – inefficient and kept economy back
         6. Revolution of 1848
            1. Massive disturbance that shook every country of Europe
            2. Underlying causes
               1. Impatience with over three decades of reactionary (conservative) rule
               2. Social and economic negative effects of Industrial Revolution
               3. Growth and strength of nationalism
               4. Long series of economic downturns and bad harvests – “Hungry Forties”
                  1. Irish Potato Famine – best-known, most deadly
            3. Events
               1. France – Citizen King Louis Philippe refuses reform demands
                  1. Revolts result – Napoleon’s nephew – Louis Napoleon – takes over
                  2. Metternich – “Everytime France sneezed, Europe caught cold”
               2. Ideas spread to rest of Europe
                  1. Only Britain (liberal) and Russia (ultra autocratic) weren’t effected
                  2. Revolution broke out lasting months
               3. Eventually all revolutions crushed or faded away
            4. Effects
               1. Forced king of Prussia, emperor of Austria to grant constitutional reforms
               2. Demonstrated power of nationalism
               3. Laid the groundwork for unification of Germany and Italy
               4. Political, social and economic issues of people HAVE to be met
      6. Haiti
         1. Impetus/Causes
            1. Appeal of Enlightenment ideals to creoles and mulattoes
            2. French Revolution as inspiration to slaves
            3. Success of American Revolution – maybe timing was right
               1. Revolts/uprisings before, but they always failed
               2. Now…Europe in chaos with rise and fall of Napoleon - distracted
                  1. Rebellious leaders opportunity to assert themselves
            4. French mercantilist policy
               1. exported coffee, sugar, cocoa, indigo from Haiti
               2. few large plantations with hundreds of thousands of slaves
                  1. By 1800, 90% of population slave
         2. Stages
            1. Slave insurrection of 1791
               1. Toussaint L’Ouverture – former slave
            2. Britain and Spain send troops; slaves and French join to oust them
            3. At the end of civil war, slaves freed and in power; still a French colony
            4. 1802, troops under Napoleon sent to end rule of former slaves
            5. Defeat of the French by rebels and disease
               1. Haitians capable fighters
               2. Yellow fever wipes out soldiers
               3. L’Ouverture captured and imprisoned in France
               4. Napoleon gives up attempt to reconquer Haiti
         3. Outcome
            1. Independence declared in 1804
               1. Jacques Dessalines – also slave – governor-general for life
               2. Haiti first independent nation in Latin America
            2. Civil war among rival factions
            3. Independent republic established in 1820
         4. Long term effects
            1. Napoleon chose to abandon effort to maintain French colonies in North America
            2. Sold vast Louisiana Territory to US for bargain
               1. Gave US control of the N. American continent
               2. Brought about major shift in global power – enter US
      7. Latin American Wars of Independence
         1. Causes
            1. Growing sense of national identity – same as US
            2. Local resentment of Spanish/Portuguese economic policies – same as US
            3. Frustration of American born Creole upper and middle class
               1. Would never be seen as equal to European born rulers
            4. Spark/catalyst was Napoleon
               1. Confusion over who was ruling
               2. Perfect opportunity to take advantage
         2. Political difficulties of 19th century Latin America
            1. Freedom alone did not bring about good government, social justice, health economy
            2. Political breakdown – instead of a few states, many independent smaller states
            3. Failure of constitutional rule
               1. Based on Napoleonic Law, US and French revolutions
               2. But…imposed artificially on Latin America
               3. Because there was no tradition of constitutions, civil liberties, political right
                  1. It all just became words…red alert – consider connection to Iraq
            4. Prevalence of dictatorial/military rule
               1. Caudillos – military/political strongmen
                  1. personal charisma, military force and/or oppression
               2. Reformers and liberals try to change, but doesn’t happen
         3. Economic backwardness
            1. Hundreds of years of shaping toward merely extracting natural resources
            2. Emphasized monoculture – one major crop – or a few crops
            3. Created condition that required importing finished goods
            4. Required large reserves of slaves/cheap labor to survive
            5. Failure to diversify economies means plantation owners need to recreate conditions to turn a profit
            6. Slow to modernize/industrialize
         4. Social and Racial Divisions
            1. Social inequality persisted regardless of laws
            2. People of mixed race, Indians, blacks victims of informal prejudice
            3. Economic income gap only worsened in 1800s
            4. Slavery even continued into 1800s in Brazil and Cuba
         5. Huge foreign influence persisted
            1. United States sets up sphere of influence
            2. Europeans either install or influence who will be leader
      8. Mexico (Revolution #1) – 1810>1820
         1. Impetus/Causes
            1. Revolution in Haiti
            2. Distraction of Spain by its war with France
         2. Stages
            1. El Grito de Dolores! Call to arms by priest
               1. Miguel Hidalgo – Creole priest – sympathized with Spanish abused
               2. led mestizos and Native Americans in rebellion in 1810
               3. Easily put down by Spanish – revolt – Hidalgo killed
            2. Fighting continued under new leader, killed in 1815; some scattered fighting
               1. Jose Morelos – picked up where Hidalgo left off
               2. Fought the loyalists
                  1. Landowners turned against when he claimed redistributing land
                  2. 1815 Morelos executed
            3. 1821 conservative creole joins with rebels and declares Mexico independent empire
            4. 1823 emperor overthrown by liberals
            5. 1824 republic created
         3. Outcome/Effects
            1. First rebellions demanded reforms such as abolition of slavery
            2. Lack of support from creoles for insurrection; collapsed
            3. Under republic, after years of turmoil, little change for ordinary mestizos/Natives
            4. French occupation
            5. Reforms instituted under Benito Juares
      9. Mexico (Revolution #2) – 1910-1917
         1. Impetus/Causes
            1. Long dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz
            2. Unequal distribution of wealth: a few wealthy landowners and mass of desperately poor peasants, factory workers, miners
            3. Liberal reformers
         2. Stages
            1. Demand for free elections; Diaz resigns
            2. Succeeded by Francisco Madero as president; murdered after two years
            3. Civil War: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata
            4. 1917 election – Venustiano Carranza as president
         3. Outcome/effects
            1. Constitution of 1917 still in effect
               1. Broke up large landholdings
               2. Nationalized ownership of natural resources and Church property
               3. Restricted religion
               4. Provided for minimum wage
               5. Extended suffrage to all males
      10. China
          1. Impetus/Causes
             1. Increasing power of foreign nations
             2. Defeat in Sino-Japanese war in 1895
             3. Spread of reform ideas among Western-educated Chinese
             4. Discontent of poor rural peasants
             5. Grant of power to provincial governments by Qing in an effort to stem uprisings
          2. Stages
             1. Abortive rebellions in late 1800s
             2. Leadership of Dowager Empress Cixi
                1. Concubine that “ruled” for nephew into adulthood
                2. More oppressive rule
                   1. Opposed all reform – pro-Western treason
                   2. Even arrested nephew/killed reformers when they tried “Hundred Days Reform”
                3. Outlying possessions slipped away – Tibet, Gobi Desert, Mongolia
             3. Chinese Revolution of 1911
                1. Provincial secessions
                2. Declaration of republic
             4. Empire under Yuan shih-K’ai
             5. Years of civil war and chaos
             6. Establishment of republic in 1927 under Nationalist/Kuomintang Party
          3. Outcome/effects
             1. Abdication of Qing (Manchu) emperor in 1912
             2. Yuan declares self emperor – dies in 1916
             3. Warlords in power across China
             4. Unification of much of China begun under Sun Yat-sen
                1. Sun Yat-sen – father of modern China
                   1. United a number of opposition groups – Revolutionary Alliance
                   2. Military takeover that would become constitutional democracy
                   3. People’s Principles
                      1. Nationalism – opposition to Manchu Rule
                      2. Democracy
                      3. People’s Livelihood
                   4. Actually in America when revolt started
                2. Chinese Republic – 1912 – Sun as president
                   1. Nationalist Party – Kuomintang
                   2. 1st time in history ruled not by imperial dynasty/foreign conqueror
                      1. Politician brought to power by popular action
                   3. Sun eventually forced to step down
                   4. Civil war results
                3. Aided by Soviets
             5. Chiang Kai-shek successor to Sun
                1. Leads nationalist republic
             6. Fight for control of China with Communists under Mao Zedong
      11. Latin America
          1. Venezuela
             1. Cause
                1. Disputed authority – Napoleon appoints brother Joseph Bonaparte to Spanish throne
                   1. Who to follow – Spanish or French?
             2. Events
                1. Simon Bolivar – Venezuelan leader
                   1. Enlightened educated – traveled to Europe/United States
                   2. Establishes national congress
                   3. Royalists – defenders of crown – declare war
                2. Bolivar wins – envisions United States like South America
                   1. Gran Colombia results – Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela
                   2. Other nations become independendent
          2. Argentina
             1. Cause
                1. Disputed authority – see French/Spanish issue above
             2. Events
                1. Jose de San Martin – American-born Spaniard (Creole)
                   1. Officer in Spanish army defects and leads rebels
                2. Joins with Bernardo O’Higgins of Chile
                3. Take revolution through Argentina, Chile, Peru
                4. By 1820s, huge chunk of South America freed from Spanish rule
          3. Brazil
             1. Cause
                1. Napoleon invaded – Portuguese king – John VI flees to Brazil
                   1. Sets up Portuguese government from Brazil
                   2. 1821 – Napoleon defeated, so John returns to Portugal
                   3. But…leaves behind his son Pedro to rule
             2. Events
                1. Pedro was 23, spend entire life in Brazil
                2. Declares independence for Brazil and makes himself emperor
                3. 1831 Pedro gives power to sequel Pedro II – rules most of 19th century
                   1. So…Brazil had early advantage of stable monarchy/gov’t through independence
                   2. Accomplishments
                      1. Abolished slavery in 1888
                         1. Angers landowning class – they revolt in 1889
                         2. Set up a republic
                      2. Major exporter of coffee
          4. Effects of Latin American independence movements
             1. Europe booted out of vast chunks of American continents during 50 year period
             2. But…independence not accompanied by widespread freedom
                1. Slavery still existed for decades
                2. Peasants still worked on huge plantations owned by few landowners
                3. Middle class/merchant class didn’t emerge
                4. Enlightenment ideas didn’t spread beyond landowning class
             3. Why weren’t changes in South America?
                1. Catholic Church remained very powerful in Latin America
                   1. Many priests fought for peasants, some martyred selves
                   2. But…Church hierarchy wanted to maintain status quo
                   3. Church – one of largest landowners in Latin America
                2. Economies largely dependent on Europe
                   1. Still participated in European mercantilism
                   2. Specialized in a few cash crops
                      1. Didn’t diversify – similar to US South
                   3. Exported almost exclusively to Europe
             4. Exceptions
                1. Chile diversified economy fairly successfully
                2. Brazil and Argentina had some social reforms/broadened economies
                   1. Middle class results
      12. Russia
          1. Keeps control over vast territory by giving absolute power to czars
             1. Majority of people serfs with no rights
             2. Alexander I and Nicholas I used secret police to squash rebellions/reform
          2. Reforms
             1. 1860s Alexander II – Emancipation Edict – abolish serfdom
                1. Serfs given small plots of land
                   1. Had to give huge payments to the government
                   2. Difficult to improve situation
                   3. Some move to cities to work in industries – harsh conditions
             2. Beginning of some arts flourish
                1. Tolstoy – Anna Karenina and War and Peace
                2. Dostoyevsky – The Brothers Karamazov
                3. Tchaikovsky – Swan Lake and Nutcracker
             3. Russification – all Russians had to learn Russian language/convert to Orthodoxy
                1. Anyone who didn’t comply was persecuted – especially Jews
             4. Nicholas II doesn’t react to revolution
                1. Socialists began to organize
                2. Tried to rally Russians around the flag, but humiliated against Japanese
             5. Moderates march on czar’s palace peacefully – ask for reform
                1. Czar sends his troops against protesters – Bloody Sunday – 1905
             6. In response, Czar attempts legislative reforms
                1. Appoints Prime Minister – Peter Stolypin
                2. Creates Duma
                   1. Has no real power
                   2. Everytime they’re about to make a change, czar disbands
      13. India
          1. Educating native elite backfired
             1. Larger numbers of these educated agitated for freedom
             2. Saw that it was hypocritical for British not to apply liberties to India
          2. Indian National Congress – 1885
             1. English speaking, educated members of upper class
             2. Most influential – Mohandas K. Gandhi – 1869
                1. Lived in S. Africa from 1893-1915
                   1. Defended rights of Indian workers living under apartheid
                2. Returned to India as central figure in freedom movement
                   1. Policy of nonviolent resistance
   2. Major independence movements
      1. Latin American independence movements
         1. Mexico’s revolution unique
            1. Revolution of mestizos and Native Americans
         2. Other Latin American revolutions
            1. Led by wealthy, educated creoles
            2. Newly independent nations replaced governing peninsulares with elite creoles
            3. Little changed for the majority of the people
               1. Mestizos
               2. Mulattoes
               3. Native Americans
            4. Causes/Impetus
               1. Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin
                  1. creoles both familiar with Enlightenment writings
               2. Spain engaged in wars with Napoleon
            5. Stages
               1. Between 1808>1824 all Spanish colonies became independent nations
            6. Outcome/Effects
               1. Bitter rivalries for power led to civil wars and more turmoil and suffering
               2. Little social, political, economic reform accomplished in former Spanish colonies
               3. Legacy of caudillo, strong man/military ruler, as head of government
   3. New political ideas
      1. Rise of nationalism
         1. Consequences of Napoleonic era was intensified nationalism
            1. Feelings of connection to one’s own home, region, language, culture
      2. Marxism
      3. Liberalism
      4. Conservatism
      5. Anarchism
      6. Rise of nation-states
         1. Unifications
            1. Italy and Germany were still feudal
               1. Center of warfare among the European powers
               2. Italy and Germany eventually unify which changes balance of power
            2. Italy
               1. Status before unification
                  1. Mid-19th century – tangle of foreign controlled small kingdoms
                     1. Austria has North
                     2. France has Rome and Papal States
                     3. Spain has two Sicilies in the South
                     4. Only Sardinia controlled by Italians
               2. Events toward unification
                  1. Victor Emmanuel II – king of Sardinia + Count Camillo Cavour
                     1. Both Sardinians push nationalism
                  2. First Cavour sides with Europeans to kick out Austrians
                  3. Giuseppi Garibaldi – Italian nationalist kicks out Spain
                  4. By 1861 most of Spain unified under Victor Emmanuel
                  5. Sided with Prussia to push out Austria
                  6. France withdraws in 1870
               3. Effects
                  1. Some still upset that parts of Austria and France aren’t Italian too
                  2. Tough to unify culturally since it had developed regionally
                  3. But…now able to assert itself on the world stage
                     1. Impacts Europe in the next century
            3. Germany
               1. Status before unification
                  1. German and Austrian Empire provinces not united since Holy Roman Empire
                     1. After Peace of Westphalia – Austria/Prussia dominated
                  2. Prussia under Frederick the Great pushed Industrial Revolution
                     1. Supported education – talented workforce
               2. Events toward unification
                  1. William I in 1861 appoints Otto von Bismarck prime minister
                     1. Goal – build the military
                     2. Consolidating the region under Prussia’s authority
                        1. Defeated Austria, convinced Europe to not help
                        2. More wars to bring in other German regions
                        3. Brings in Catholic German states through war
                           1. Unite against France in 1870
                  2. King William II then emperor of the German Empire
                     1. Second Reich – “second empire”
                     2. First Reich – “Holy Roman Empire”
               3. Effects
                  1. Germany quickly industrializes
                     1. Strong economic/political power
                  2. William II forced Bismarck to give up role
                     1. Becomes undisputed emperor in 1888
                     2. Built huge navy
                     3. Pursued colonial ambitions in Africa and Asia
                  3. Germany becomes world power
                     1. By 1914, thought they could take on anyone
      7. Movements of political reform
         1. Gradual Move Toward Representative Government
            1. 2nd half of century moved toward representative govt
            2. Why?
               1. Industrialization, modernization, urbanization, population growth
                  1. Too many issues for one man to handle
            3. Even in less democratic nations, power still spread to advisers, agencies, ministries and institutions
         2. Reform and Democracy in Great Britain
            1. Liberal and Conservative parties agreed to expand suffrage
               1. Second and Third Reform Acts – 1867/1885 – universal suffrage
            2. Problems still existed
               1. Aristocracy trying to retain privileges
               2. Growing middle class has ambitions of higher status
               3. Enormous working class striving for equality
                  1. Labour Party ends up replacing liberal (middle class) party
               4. Irish home rule
                  1. Should North – split Catholic/Protestant remain British or Irish
                  2. Should Ireland be set free
         3. Democracy in France
            1. Louis Napoleon renamed himself Napoleon III
               1. Cancelled out some of the post-1848 liberties
               2. Deposed after losing Franco-Prussian war of 1871
            2. 1871 onward – France becomes democratic republic – universal suffrage
               1. Fourth Republic
               2. Still had problems
                  1. Corruption and financial scandal
                  2. Dreyfus Affair – Jewish officer accused of selling secrets to Germ
                     1. Exposed anti-Semitism
                     2. Pitted left vs. right – innocent vs. guilty
         4. Unification of Italy and Germany
            1. Showed power of nationalism – more powerful than demand for democracy
            2. Unified through combination of war and diplomatic intrigue/maneuvering
               1. Garibaldi – Italy
               2. Von Bismarck - Germany
         5. Austria-Hungary
            1. More conservative, but moved away from autocracy
            2. 1861 Emperor Franz Josef shared power with parliament
            3. Struggled on how much power to give to ethnic minorities
               1. Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Italians, Hungarians
               2. Minorities want autonomy – self-determination
               3. 1867 – Largest minority forced Austrians to give power
                  1. Augsleich – “compromise” – becomes Austria-Hungary
         6. Germany
            1. Had to make concessions to growing working class
               1. Trade unions and socialism growing in power/influence
            2. Universal suffrage for Reichstag
               1. But…upper class votes weighed more than lower-class votes
            3. Laws for employment benefits
               1. unemployment insurance
               2. disability insurance
               3. pensions
               4. shorter work day
               5. Some workers actually better off than western world
         7. Russia
            1. Remained most autocratic
            2. No constitution, and until 1905 – no elected body
            3. Following embarrassing defeat in Crimean War – 1853-856
               1. Tsar Alexander II forced to implement liberal reforms
                  1. Modernize Russia
                  2. Emancipation of serfs in 1861
                  3. Lightened censorship
                  4. Widened powers of local government
                  5. 1881 – Alexander II assassinated by radical terrorists
               2. Future tsars reversed policies
            4. 1905 – Uprising forces Nicholas II to share power with Duma
               1. But…Nicholas II ignored or disbanded Duma – neutered
         8. Japan
            1. Tokugawa Shogunate in the 18th century
               1. Ruled by Tokugawa clan – seized control in 1600s
               2. Technically authority with emperor, reality with shogunate
               3. Top of society – samurai – warrior class
               4. Early successes
                  1. Helped centralize Japan
                  2. Transformed from warring collection of states to peaceful country
               5. Problems
                  1. Highly dictatorial
                  2. Stratified society with no chance for social mobility
                  3. Few personal freedoms – people left out of politics
                  4. Isolated self from rest of the world
                     1. Only relations with Korea, some China, Dutch – Nagasaki
            2. Meiji Restoration
               1. Meiji Restoration of 1868 began Japan’s modern age
                  1. Irony – rebellion anti-Western in nature, but
                     1. Must embrace West to survive/compete
                  2. Revolution from above
                     1. Meiji’s govt radically alters politics, economics, social
               2. Politics
                  1. Abolishes feudalism
                     1. Samurai have positions of power
                     2. No hereditary privileges
                     3. Stop payment to samurai
                     4. Samurai couldn’t wear swords
                  2. Formal law code – Civil Code of 1898 drawn up
                  3. Constitution of 1890 – elected parliament – Diet
                     1. Suffrage quite low – 5% - property qualifications
                     2. Emperor still has power over Diet
                     3. Created oligarchy – rule by Meiji and advisors
                     4. Less restrictive, but hardly representative
                     5. Women ignored – second class citizens
                        1. But…had some power with new working jobs
                  4. Regional governments now run by prefects – state appointed
               3. Economics
                  1. Modern efficiency – peasant #s decrease, productivity increases
                  2. Industrialization
                     1. Sent young members of upper class to train in W. Europe
                        1. Engineering, economics, military
                     2. Ministry of Industry in 1870
                     3. State banks gave financing to growing industries
                     4. New railroads, steamships, ports, canals built
                     5. Zaibatsu – state sponsored huge corporations
                     6. Encouraged private enterprise
                  3. Negatives of Industrialization
                     1. Taxes for farmers goes up
                     2. Working conditions for laborers goes down
                        1. Nagasaki – temps. up to 130, shot for escaping
                     3. Labor unions forbidden
               4. Social
                  1. Rigid social hierarchy of Tokugawa ended
                  2. Access to political positions increasingly based on merit
                     1. Civil service exam
                  3. Middle class power grows
                     1. No longer negative stigma about trade and artisanship
                  4. Negatives for lower class
                     1. Farmers taxed heavily
                     2. Industrial workers live/work in horrible conditions
                  5. But…for lower class
                     1. state funded education
                     2. now allowed to serve in military
                     3. population skyrocketed – 35 million 1873 > 55 in 1918
      8. Democracy
         1. Rise
         2. Limitations
         3. Reform
         4. Women
            1. Women’s movements
               1. Founder – Mary Wolstonecraft – English writer
                  1. A Vindication of the Rights of Women – 1792
                  2. Equal rights – education, political, economic pursuits
               2. France – playwright Olympes de Gouges – argues for suffrage
            2. “Women Question” – what is their sphere/role
               1. “cult of true womanhood”
                  i. Virtues of submissiveness, piety, domesticity, modesty, femininity
               2. Feminists
                  1. Women were individuals with different strengths and abilities
                  2. Permitted to develop them without social restrictions
            3. Early phases of reform
               1. 1830s in US/Europe
               2. Focused on reforming family/divorce laws – own property/divorce
               3. Frustrated – lack of civil rights made it difficult ot argue for other causes
                  1. slavery, temperance, improving schools, helping poor
               4. Jobs – teaching/nursing – women’s sphere
               5. Building social welfare institutions
                  1. Providing aid to orphaned children/poor
            4. Next phase – mid century
               1. Pushed for suffrage
               2. Led by women of the upper class
               3. US suffragettes called for better working conditions/right to vote
               4. Took leadership roles in banning alcohol, child welfare, labor reform
            5. Not granted right to vote until after World War I
               1. Early exceptions – Norway, Finland, handful of US states in the West
         5. Racism
   4. Overlaps between nations and empires

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Questions of Periodization
   1. Continuities and Breaks
      1. Continuities
         1. Absolutism in France
         2. Sense of cultural superiority of the Chinese
         3. “Revolutionary” change didn’t supplant everything
            1. People learned to be both scientist and Christian
            2. Slavery outlawed, but former slaves not embraced into society
            3. Racism – both social and institutional continued
      2. Breaks
         1. French Revolution
         2. End of Japanese isolation and rapid modernization in Japan
      3. What makes the “modern age”
         1. Politics
            1. Trend away from monarchy toward greater political representation
            2. Form of democracy or at least an appearance of democracy
         2. Economics
            1. Mechanization and industrialization become driving forces
            2. Shift from mercantilism/feudalism to capitalism
            3. No longer based primarily on agriculture – increasingly on industry and commerce
         3. Society
            1. Class transformation
            2. Old aristocracies – derive power from noble birth – gradually fade away
            3. New elites status comes from wealth
            4. Middle class and industrial working class expand
            5. Modern societies become urbanized
            6. Population growth accelerates
         4. Culture
            1. Scientific, secular world view becomes dominant
            2. Artistic styles change more rapidly and radically than ever before
      4. End of the era – 1914
         1. 19th century – Europe at the peak of its power – replaced by the US in 20th century
         2. New philosophies, scientific theories, cultural movements attacking Western values
         3. Diplomatic trends bringing nations towards war
         4. World War I would speed up process of European decline
      5. Continuities
         1. Conservative backlash – reaction – strove to keep this power in check
            1. Some more successful at fighting liberalizing/democratizing elements
   2. Causes of changes from the previous period and within this period
      1. West major causal agent of change
         1. Underwent vast changes/caused vast changes in other areas of the world
         2. Begun process in 1400s with
            1. Voyages of exploration
            2. Colonization
            3. Appropriation of world trading networks
            4. Establishment of new trade routes
         3. W. Europe consolidated hold on
            1. Foreign colonies
            2. Global trade
         4. Unprecedented – never before/since has one civilization truly dominated the world
         5. With it come huge moral and ethical price
            1. Imperialism linked to warfare, racial prejudice, economic exploitation, slavery
            2. Harmful effects still felt in Africa, Latin America, and Asia
      2. Industrialization
         1. Changed the way the world made goods
         2. Changed the way the world did business
      3. Political changes in Europe led to first world war
         1. Enlightenment
         2. Attempts at radical reform
         3. Unification of Germany and Italy
         4. Shifting balance of power among European nations
         5. End of absolute monarchies
         6. Revolutions established set of ideals that could be pushed for in the future
      4. Important changes independent of Europe occurred
      5. Imperialism
         1. Industrialization and imperialism both interconnected
         2. Developments in one region have impact on other regions
         3. Improvements in communication/transportation allow regional developments to expand
         4. Movement away from Western Hemisphere
            1. W. Hemisphere freed self from European control by early 19th century
            2. Imperialists turn eyes toward Africa and Asia
               1. Exploitation easy
               2. Markets huge
      6. Nationalism
         1. Nationalism a huge force – why did it grow
         2. Sparked rebellions, independence movements, unification movements
         3. Sparked domination and colonialism
      7. Eugenics/Ethnocentrism – ideological explanations for racial superiority
         1. Most Europeans ethnocentric – viewed other cultures as barbarian/uncivilized
            1. Ethnocentrism leads to social improvements – can’t exactly treat selves bad
         2. Social Darwinists
            1. Applied theory of natural selection to sociology
               1. Dominant races rose to the top due to “survival of the fittest”
               2. Britain obviously most fit – must be the superior race
         3. White Man’s Burden – Europeans have moral obligation to teach others how to be civilized
            1. Rudyard Kipling poem
            2. Convert to Christianity and civilized in the European fashion
            3. Europeans knew what was best for everyone
         4. Compared to other cultures
            1. Chinese – Middle Kingdom – “center of the world”
            2. Japan also believed they were racially superior
            3. Difference
               1. Europe has military technology to act on these beliefs
               2. Quite capable of subjugating peoples for economic/military/political reason
               3. Success only encourages them to do it more
      8. Why did changes occur so quickly during this time period?
         1. Communicated more quickly than before
            1. Trains and ships raced across the continent and seas
            2. Telegraph cables were laid
            3. By 1914 telephones ringing
            4. By 1914 planes in the air
         2. Consider speed of Japanese industrialization
         3. Consider speed of colonizing Africa vs. colonizing Latin America
         4. Urbanization
            1. Ideas spread more quickly
            2. Like-minded people able to associate
            3. Individuals had contact with greater variety of people – greater variety of ideas
               For example, India learns English customs, culture quickly
            4. Countryside maintains conservative views

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Rise of Western Dominance
   1. Economic
      1. Technological, economic military rise of the West
      2. Altered the balance of global power
      3. Industrialization replaced agriculture as largest, most important sector of economy
         1. Began in England 18th and 19th century through Europe, later rest of the world
      4. Dominant mode of economic organization – free-market, laissez faire capitalism
         1. Commerce and banking – foundations of money-based economy – not land-based
      5. Transformed class structures
         1. Aristocracy based on land and family prestige faded
         2. Those employed in agriculture shrank
         3. Middle class grew tremendously, gained great wealth, diversified
         4. New lower class – industrial working class was born
      6. Industrialization led to urbanization – cities grew in size, more cities established
      7. First decades of industrialization painful for lower classes
         1. Working conditions poor, wages were low
         2. Over time, industrialization greatly raised the average properity of a society’s population
            1. Even lower classes benefit over time
      8. Non-Western worlds adopt industrialization in varying ways
         1. Some European imperial powers introduced to colonies
         2. Rulers of free non-Western nations tried to impose from above
      9. Slavery still key to 18th/19th century world economy
         1. Africa primary victim of slave trading
         2. East African and Atlantic Slave Trade continued into the 1870s/1880s
      10. Fall of mercantilism, rise of capitalism
          1. Economies more likely to flourish if left alone to function freely
             1. Need competition, free trade, laws of supply and demand create greater wealth
             2. Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations – 1776 – “invisible hand” of supply and demand
      11. “dismal science” – negative view of capitalism
          1. Thomas Malthus – Essay on Population – 1799 –
             1. Population growth led to poverty
             2. War, disease, starvation – necessary to control population
          2. David Ricardo – “iron law of wages”
             1. Employer will pay lowest possible wage to make money
             2. If supply of labor goes up, salaries will drop
      12. Socialism, Marxism and Communism
          1. Socialism – economic competition is inherently unfair and leads to injustice/inequality
             1. Utopian socialists – with good planning and regulation – everyone can be happy
          2. Marxism – more radical socialism – Communist Manifesto
             1. History always driven by class struggle between upper class/lower class
                1. Karl Marx – all history result of class struggle - bourgeoisie vs. proletariat
                   1. middle class vs. working class
             2. Workers would overthrow which would lead to communism – revolution necessary
                1. Would eventually revolt and form “dictatorship of the proletariat”
                   1. Would ensure social and political freedom
                2. No longer a need for the state – eventually wither away
                3. Result – pure communism – classless society
          3. Communism
             1. Ideally – perfect justice, social equality and plenty
   2. Political
      1. Broad trends
         1. World affairs determined by policy choices in Europe
         2. United States broke away from English rule, went on to dominate Americas
         3. Spanish/Portuguese colonies freed themselves of European rule
         4. Eastern Question – gradual decline of the Ottoman Empire presented Europe with choices
         5. Between 1814 > 1914 – 35% to 85% of European control of habitable territory
         6. Japan only non-Western nation to develop effective, modern colonial empire
         7. New nations of Germany and Italy created
         8. Tensions over diplomacy, nationalism, competition for overseas possessions led to alliances
      2. Political developments
         1. greater popular representation in government and politics
            1. American Revolution and French Revolution were precedents
         2. During 1800s, especially after 1848 – Europe and West politics more representative
            1. Bureaucracies and parliamentary bodies becoming increasingly important
            2. More important than arbitrary will of rulers/monarchs
         3. Other parts of the world slower in moving from traditional monarchies/oligarchies
            1. Japan/Ottoman Empire developed parliamentary monarchies by 20th century
            2. Latin America had parliamentary monarchies in theory
               1. But usually slipped into dictatorship or military rule
         4. Much of the non-Western world spent the 19th century under European colonial domination
      3. Middle class representation
         1. Through revolt and reform were able to gain more political and economic rights
      4. Working class radicalism
         1. Most desperate option – radical forms of agitation – socialism, communism, anarchism
            1. Radicalized workers led by intellectuals
         2. Trade unions
            1. At first, illegal – in danger of arrest, injury – especially if went on strike
            2. Government oftentimes supported corporation
            3. Left leaning, but not as far as socialism, communism
   3. Social
   4. Cultural
      1. Starting in West, scientific, secular worldview became paramount
         1. Technological/scientific advancements of Industrial Revolution accelerated process
         2. Theories of Charles Darwin accelerated process
            1. Evolution is a random process – physical changes that increase survival passed on
            2. Common ancestor of humans and apes
            3. Erode faith in traditional religion and encourage more secular view of the world
      2. Greater access to public education increased through 1800s
         1. Literacy rates rose
      3. Tremendous movement of peoples
         1. Massive waves of emigration from Europe and China > N. and S. America
         2. United States preferred destination, but also to Canada, Argentina, Chile
      4. Nationalism became an incredibly powerful cultural attitude in Europe
         1. By end of 1800s nationalist movements more prevalent in non-Western parts of the world
            1. Especially those dominated by Europeans, and educated by Europeans
      5. Modernist thought and culture – late 1800s/early 1900s
         1. Diversity and innovation
         2. Artists broke rules of traditional culture and experimented with variety of styles
            1. Expressionism, Cubism, abstraction
         3. Time of crisis and uncertainty in art
         4. Fridrich Nietzche
            1. “God is Dead”
            2. All systems of morality valueless in the materialistic modern age
         5. Science of psychology to understand human mind
      6. Adopted Western behavior
         1. Japan adopted – fashion, manners, calendar, metric system
   5. Artistic
      1. Non-Western world began to adopt many of the artistic and literary forms of the West
         1. Especially the print culture and writing styles, but also architecture
         2. Styles from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East had influence on West
            1. Especially painting, sculpture, decor
      2. Europe and Americas, pace of cultural change sped up considerably
         1. End of the 1800s, new artistic and literary trends were emerging at rapid rate
         2. New artistic and literary trends were breaking rules and defying conventions
      3. Romanticism
         1. Originated with German authors and French philosopher Rousseau
         2. Backlash/reaction to logic/reason-oriented outlook of Enlightenment
         3. Most important – emotion/passion
            1. Self-realization of the individual, heroism, love of the natural world
      4. Realism
         1. Rejected Romanticism’s idealized dramatic outlook
         2. Focused on sober, critical view of life
         3. Details of everyday existence
            1. Social problems – poverty, social hypocrisy, class injustice
         4. Looked at psychological workings of charaters’ minds
   6. Patterns of Expansion
   7. Imperialism and Colonialism
      1. Causes of Imperialism
         1. Economic - Industrialization gave West the ability and reasons to conquer the world
            1. hungry for raw materials
            2. Markets for goods
               1. Economists today say industrialized nations better markets than colonies
            3. Immense wealth allowed it to afford military, transportation, communication tools
            4. Economic imperialism
               1. Exertion of economic influence rather than political control over a region
                  1. America over Hawaii – sugar and pineapple
                  2. Latin America dependent on Europe for finished goods
                  3. Cuba – American economic imperialism led to territorial gains
                  4. Central America and Caribbean – dependent on foreign loans
                     1. US protects these regions from European threat - Monroe
         2. Military factors
            1. New weaponry – steam powered ocean fleets, modern rifles, machine guns, artillery
               1. Steamships could travel previously unnavigable rivers – can reach interior
            2. Rarely could native win
               1. Except for instances of overwhelming numbers, miscalculation, good luck
            3. Need to maintain bases and coal stations around the world
               1. Both for navies and civilian fleets
               2. Needed elaborate repair and fueling facilities
               3. Islands and ports around world crucial
         3. Social factors
            1. Rapid population growth
               1. Emigration to Americas – chance to make fortune/improve life
         4. Science and technology
            1. New knowledge – exploration brought better maps/familiarity w/ local environments
            2. Medical advances
               1. Penetrate tropical regions without fear of
                  1. sleeping sickness, yellow fever, malaria
               2. These illnesses had worked as natural guard against earlier invasions
         5. Cultural factors
            1. Racial superiority
               1. Entitled to conquer and colonize areas that seemed “backward”/”primitive”
                  1. Cecil Rhodes – Britain/Africa – “I contend that we are the finest race in the world, and the more of it we inhabit, the better it is.”
               2. Justified in crude/prejudiced terms
                  1. Social Darwinism applied to humanity
                  2. ii Those technologically/culturally advanced should conquer others
            2. Duty of Westerners to teach/modernize darker-skinned “primitive” peoples
               1. Rudyard Kipling – “White Man’s Burden”
               2. A bit condescending? Or heartfelt desire to civilize?
            3. Trampled on/eradicated native cultural practices
      2. Western Approaches to Empires
         1. “The sun never sets on the British Empire”
            1. British allow more self rule, introduce positive social reforms, useful knowledge
            2. French similarly subscribed to “la mission civilisatrice”
            3. Portuguese and Belgians especially harsh in Africa
            4. Germany and Italy also harsh – poison gas in North Africa
      3. Europe in India
         1. Long time a destination for European traders – luxuries
            1. tea, sugar, silk, salt, jute (strong fiber for ropes)
         2. Mughal rule – fighting between Hindus/Muslims gave opening to Europe
            1. Many regions slipped to independent kingdoms/city-states
            2. Increased pressure from European outsiders destabilized power
         3. British East India Company – 1750s conquered Bengal – Bangladesh
            1. Exclusive trade over India
            2. This corporation defeated French
               1. French worked out of Madras and Pondicherry
                  1. Portuguese and Dutch still had some coastal settlements
            3. Gradually set up administrative regions throughout empire
            4. Used Mughal jailing of British population in Black Hole of Calcutta
               1. Catalyst for decisive military action - 1757
         4. Why was British East India company successful?
            1. Naval might allowed military superiority
            2. Governed directly or through the authority of local rulers
            3. Some times British conquered regions they didn’t want – put back insurrections
         5. Sepoy Mutiny
            1. British East India Company used Indians – Sepoys – as soldiers
            2. Sepoys start to get frustrated - 1857
               1. Taking up too much of India
               2. Not respecting Muslim/Hindu customs
                  1. British trying to undermine Hindu/Muslim religious practices
                  2. Bullet cartridges greased with pork/beef fat – both forbidden
                  3. Fear of being sent overseas – break Hindu caste
            3. Massacres and atrocities on both sides
               1. Tens of thousands killed – British soldiers, civilians, Indian troops, civilians
            4. Hindus/Muslims failed to cooperate with each other
            5. Reaction
               1. British make India a crown colony
               2. Mughal emperor – Bahudar Shah II – sent into exile
               3. 300 million Indians become British subjects
         6. British Colonialism
            1. India model of British imperialism
               1. Raw materials flowed to Britain, finished materials back to India
                  1. Primarily textile industry
               2. Upper castes taught English language/English attitudes
               3. Christianity spread
               4. Railroads and canals built
               5. Urbanization increased dramatically
               6. Educated upper castes dream of freeing India from British rule
            2. 1885 Indian National Congress
               1. Begin path toward independence
               2. Over next 60 years adapt British customs while holding on to traditions
            3. Proverbial “jewel in the crown of the British Empire”
               1. Conquest and ownership of largest/most populous regions on earth
                  1. Tiny group of islands 5000 miles away – central/telling fact
               2. Global impact
                  1. Affected global economies
                  2. movement of navies
                  3. international relations
                  4. balance of world power
                  5. gave Britain immense wealth and prestige
               3. Affected course of Indian history
                  1. changing politics, economic development, social practices, language, virtually every aspect of Indian culture
            4. Advantages and disadvantages of rule
               1. Disadvantages – 1700s
                  1. Profits generated by raw materials sent back to Britain
                  2. Size/efficiency of British mills drove locals out of business
                  3. British could confiscate peasant land if didn’t pay taxes
                     1. Local zamindars abused system to get more land
                     2. Mass famines kill one third of Indian population
                  4. Goal economic exploitation through military force
               2. Advantages – 1800s
                  1. Motivated by increased efficiency
                     1. Selfishness
                     2. White Man’s Burden
                  2. Modernized country
                     1. Infrastructure – roads, railroads, telegraph, postal
                     2. Educational system
                        1. Raise scientific/technological advancement
                        2. Create educated pro-Western natives
                        3. “Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals, and in intellect.”
                     3. Civil service exam
                     4. Eliminated inhumane cultural practices
                        1. Sati – burning widows alive
                        2. Thuggee – ritual assassination of travelers – Kali
                        3. Harsh treatment of untouchables
                     5. Reduced level of sectarian strife
      4. Europe in Southeast Asia
         1. By 1900, only small portion of Southeast Asia not controlled by Europe
         2. National resistance movements beginning to form
            1. For the time being, unable to move foreign masters
            2. Laid foundation for freedom movements that would expel foreigners after WWII
         3. Southeast Asia before 1800
            1. Only major regions controlled by Europe – Philippines and Indonesia
               1. British influence in Malay peninsula
               2. Portuguese controlled part of Timor – Indonesia
               3. Indonesia – controlled by Dutch East India Company
                  1. Handed responsibility over to upper-class natives
                     1. Western-educated
         4. Malaya and Singapore
            1. Rich in rubber, tin, oil, copper, iron, aluminum ore
            2. Singapore – Stamford Raffles – trading center and fortress, naval base
               1. With India and Hong Kong, one of Britain’s most prized possessions
         5. French Conquest of Indochina – Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia
            1. France needs to stop Britain from having uninterrupted control of Asia
               1. Britain takes over Burma
            2. 1879-1859 – pressured Nguyen dynasty to accept foreign rule
               1. Most profitable natural resources – tin, rubber, chrome, oil, bauxite
            3. Government related to that of British
               1. More religious than British – conversion
                  1. Local elite of upper-class, Westernized natives
               2. Exploited economy – a la British
               3. la mission civilisatrice – modern technology and science to the colonies
               4. more willing to resort to repression and violence to maintain order
         6. Thailand
            1. Remained independent due to leadership and good luck
               1. King Mongkut and King Chulalongkorn (The King and I)
                  1. Modernized monarchs – introduced industrialization/Western reforms
               2. Geographic setting
                  1. lay between British Burma and French Indochina
                  2. Mutually agreed informally to let it be buffer zone
         7. US Annexation of the Philippines
            1. In Spanish American War of 1898 – Americans + Natives overthrew Spanish
            2. Debate in Europe over what to do with Philippines
               1. Turn into US colony
                  1. Prevent from falling into hands of Japanese
                  2. Superb naval base in Pacific
                  3. Way station with China
                  4. “Moral” obligation to help poor yellow brothers
            3. Pattern of practical selfishness + condescending idealism
            4. Savage war in jungles for US to maintain colony
               1. Emilio Aguinaldo now turns against Americans – bloody battle
      5. Europe in China
         1. Much of Chinese history remained isolationist
            1. Frequently traded, but didn’t make exploring a priority
            2. Napoleon saw China as “sleeping dragon” – untapped population, size, resources
            3. Expanded by conquering neighbors, but didn’t take expansion beyond region
            4. Backwardness – unwillingness to modernize/industrialize left vulnerable
               1. Deluded sense of grandeur/past accomplishments
            5. Allowed European traders to trade only in port city of Canton
               1. Established strict limitations on what could be bought or sold
               2. Eventually British used weapons/warship/industrialization to push in
         2. Why China was weak?
            1. Under Qing, several negative trends occurred simultaneously
               1. Quality of leadership declined – weak, incompetent emperors
               2. Government corruption
               3. Cost of maintaining borders cumbersome
               4. Population growth too rapid
               5. Open revolt on several occasions
               6. Increased economic and diplomatic pressure from the West
                  1. Until 1810 – too strong to conquer
                     1. Held advantage in trade balance
                     2. Could only trade in Macao and selected ports
                     3. Vast Western bullion in exchange for tea, porcelain
                  2. Europe wants to sell more products to China
                     1. In response to Lord Maccartney – “Your country has nothing we need.”
                     2. Reaction from tough business sense
                     3. Feelings of superiority
                        1. Middle Kingdom
                        2. Center of the universe
                        3. All outsiders barbarians
               7. So…foreigners start refusing embarrassing/unprofitable trade imbalance
         3. Opium Wars
            1. 1773 – British introduced opium
               1. Clever, but unethical way to break into Chinese markets
               2. Prime source Northeast India
               3. 1820s/1830s British flood China with opium
               4. Other countries get involved – France, Portugal, United States
                  1. But British have 80% of trade
               5. Trade balance had swung
            2. 1839 – Manchu Emperor edict forbidding sale or use of opium
               1. Chinese government angry for many reasons
                  1. China had become a nation of addicts
                  2. Silver bullion flowing out and not in
                  3. Economic productivity declines – farmers/workers incapacitated
                  4. “The foreigners have brought us a disease which will dry up our bones, a worm that gnaws at our hearts, a ruin to our families and persons. It means the destruction of the soul of our nation.”
               2. Chinese seized British opium in Canton in 1839
                  1. Arrest dealers, seize supplies, intercept boats
            3. 1839-1842 – British/Chinese war over opium trade
               1. Forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing
                  1. Easily defeated
                  2. first of the “unequal treaties” – allowed to expand trade to China
                     1. Right to create more opium addicts
                  3. Forced to open five new ports, lower tariffs
                  4. British law prevailed in heavily British population areas
               2. 1843 established Hong Kong as its own crown possession – colony
               3. 1844 Christian missionaries allowed back in
                  1. More common for Protestants/Catholic volunteers to travel
                     1. Teach Christianity/English language
                     2. Interfered with an eroded Chinese culture
                  2. Brought scientific/technological knowledge
                     1. Treated diseases with modern medicine
                  3. Helped eliminate oppressive cultural practices
                     1. Footbinding
                  4. mixed legacy of positive and negative impact
            4. 1856-1860 Second Opium war
               1. Humiliating defeat
               2. Result – all of China opened to European trade
               3. But…Hong Kong the exception – no desire to fully colonize – just market
               4. Territory along Chinese coast becomes extraterritorial
                  1. Controlled by foreigners
                  2. Japan, Germany, Italy, Portuguese, French, British, US, Russians
            5. Fall of China
               1. Internal rebellions
                  1. White Lotus Rebellions – Buddhist anti taxes/corruption
                  2. Taping Rebellion – nationalist Chinese
                     1. Second deadliest war in world history
                     2. 20-30 million lives lost
                     3. “Heavenly Kingdom of Supreme Peace” – taiping
                     4. Hong Xiuquan fails civil service
                        1. Thinks he’s Jesus’s brother
                     5. Resented taxes, arbitrary rule, foreign rule
                     6. Eventually defeated
                        1. Competent Qing generals
                        2. Ever-Victorious Army – run by American
                           1. Then British general
               2. External losses
                  1. Korea claims independence – 1876
                  2. Vietnam goes to French – 1883 – Sino-French War
                  3. 1895 Japan defeats China – Sino-Japanese War
                     1. Japan takes Taiwan
                     2. Has Europeanesque trading rights
                     3. Took over Korean peninsula
               3. European spheres of influence
                  1. France, Germany, Russia, Britain
                  2. Not colonies – set up – military businesses, invested in
                     1. business, transportation, communication
               4. US wants peace of the action – Open Door Policy
                  1. China open to all of the world – OK…Europe and US
               5. Attempted reform with the self-strengthening movement
                  1. Encouraged Western investment
                  2. Modernized the Chinese army
            6. Boxer Rebellion
               1. Boxers – Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists
                  1. Anti-Manch, anti-European, anti-Christian
                  2. “Boxers” – martial arts experts
               2. Goal – drive Europeans and Japanese out of China
                  1. Most of anger directed at Beijing
                  2. Foreign residents and foreign legations
               3. Tactics – guerilla warfare against Christian missionaries/embassies
               4. Easily defeated once Europeans/Japanese sent in reinforcements
               5. Forced to sign Boxer Protocol – payments to Japanese/Europeans
            7. China starts to fall apart
               1. Foot binding abolished 1901
               2. 1905 – Chinese examination system ended
               3. Attempts at reform
                  1. 1905 – Empress Cixi formed a committee to discuss constitution
                  2. Last Emperor – Henry Puyi – local assemblies
                     1. Election for national assembly planned for 1910
               4. 1911 – Government toppled
      6. Europe in Southeast Asia
         1. Britain takes Burma, Malay peninsula (Singapore), northern Borneo, Australia
         2. Dutch take Indoneseia
         3. Philippines controlled by Spain then US
         4. France took over Indochina – Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam
         5. Germany Pacific islands as naval posts
      7. Europe in Africa
         1. Africa held little interest to Europeans prior to Industrial Revolution
            1. Though North of Sahara – Egypt especially – had interest/historical impact
            2. Vast interior unknown to outside world
            3. 1880-1910 able to take over “Dark Continent” in “Scramble for Africa”
               1. Almost brought Europe to war
               2. Berlin Conference – 1884-1885 set up rules
               3. By 1910 only Liberia – guaranteed by the US and Ethiopia free
                  1. Ethiopia – armed self with modern weapons – drove off Italy
                     1. Coptic Christian kingdom – modernized under Theodore II
                     2. Arabs drove Portuguese from coast
            4. Though North Africa easier to control – Sub-Saharan inland tougher
               1. Disease – naval superiority inefficient until steam
                  1. Better medicines
               2. Lacked geographic knowledge of region
            5. Before 1880 – 10% of Africa controlled, by 1914 – all but 2 countries
            6. During Age of Exploration – coastal regions important for limited trade
               1. Strategic positioning – stopping points for merchant ships to India/China
               2. Became center of slave trade
               3. Resources plundered – gold, ivory, timber
               4. Established outposts, naval bases, small colonies
         2. Imperialist powers improve infrastructure
            1. Railways, roads, public works, hospitals, improved sanitation
            2. Most improvements initially for benefit of European colonists
            3. Improved health care
         3. African reaction
            1. Strong African states resisted foreign domination
               1. Ironically they got the power from Atlantic Slave Trade – weapons
         4. The Slave Trade Ends
            1. Enlightenment principles make people outraged at slavery
               1. 1807-1820 – Most European nations outlaw slavery
               2. Outlawed decades later
               3. So…slave trade ends (at least legally), but slavery continues
                  1. Some slaves returned to Africa – emigrated to Liberia
               4. But…within 50 years Africans now subjugated on own homeland
         5. African states during late 1700s and 1800s
            1. Number of states strong enough to resist foreign domination
               1. Others useful, cooperative enough for Europeans to work with
               2. Some Western states remained independent – Muslim theocracies
                  1. Fulani Empire, Masina, Tukolor
            2. Ashanti Kingdom
               1. Strongest and most unified of West African states
               2. Used profits from slave trade to buy guns
               3. Power increases as neighbors fight each other/succumb to foreign rule
               4. Fought British, French, American attempts to end slave trade
               5. Next to Zulus, toughest group to subdue
                  1. Finally overthrown by British in 1900
         6. South Africa
            1. Prior to discovery of gold/diamonds – S. Africa only important for shipping/military
               1. Dutch arrived first, set up Cape Town as stopping point for ships
               2. 1795 British seized Cape Town
                  1. S. African Dutch – Boers/Afrikaners moved Northeast
                     1. In Transvaal, they discovered gold/diamonds
               3. British then fought bloody battles for resources
                  1. Boer War – 1899-1902
                     1. All of S. Africa becomes part of British Empire
                     2. Natives have no claims – work mines
               4. Boers came in contact with Zulus – most fearsome African enemy
                  1. Shaka Zulu in 1816 seized power and united clans
                     1. Black Napoleon
                     2. Taught how to fight in organized, efficient fashion
                     3. Warlike, conquering tribe
            2. Became significant British colony
               1. Extensive investment in infrastructure
               2. 1910 – colony had its own Constitution
                  1. Union of South Africa – self-rule + part of British commonwealth
                  2. Only white men could vote
               3. 1912 – African National Congress organized
                  1. Opposed to colonialism and specific S. African policies
         7. Discovery of Diamonds
            1. Modern era of African history began w/ discovery of diamond deposits in 1870s
               1. Increased exploitation of African labor
               2. White control sharpened racial attitudes already bigoted
                  1. Racial segregation in the mines
                  2. Laws that restricted African workers
                  3. Set precedent for Apartheid laws
               3. Kimberly, South Africa – peopled by many ethnic groups – annexed by Brit
         8. Egypt
            1. In theory, Ottomans ruled Egypt from 1517-1882, but toward end had little power
               1. Local rulers – byes – had far more influence
                  1. Muhammad Ali defeated French/Ottomans – gained control – 1805
                     1. Began industrialization of Egypt
                     2. Expanded agriculture toward cotton production
                        1. Exported to Britain at a profit
                  2. Abbas I slowed westernization
                  3. French + Egypt begin construction of Suez Canal
                     1. Canal completed in 1869
                     2. More valuable to British – connection to India
               2. British take control of canal
                  1. Egypt sells stock in canal to pay for substantial gov’t debt
                  2. By 1882, controlled canal, plus had a ton of power in Egypt
                  3. Became British protectorate – puppet local government
               3. Pushed out of Egypt, France looked elsewhere
         9. The Berlin Conference
            1. 1884 – Otto von Bismarck hosted major European powers
            2. Set up rules for how future colonization and boundaries would be determined
            3. Europeans left Congress in haste – on your mark, get set, go
               1. Needed to be first to establish possession
               2. Within three decades almost entire continent colonized
                  1. Only Ethiopia and Liberia free of European rule
                  2. Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium
            4. Positives – added substantial infrastructure – railroads, dams, roads
            5. Negatives
               1. Stripped Africa of its resources
               2. Treated natives harshly
               3. Europeans put in positions of authority
               4. Natives adopt European customs
                  1. British gave natives a little more autonomy – focused on India
               5. Borders based on European political/economic priorities
                  1. Not on African history or culture
                     1. Tribal lands cut in half between two colonies
                     2. Two rival tribes brought together under one rule
                        1. Better for Europe – can’t organize opposition
               6. Traditional African culture hurt
                  1. European schools
                  2. Christian missionaries
                  3. Western business practices
                  4. Like elsewhere in global colonial – native culture breaks apart
         10. Why European conquest so easy?
             1. External reasons
                1. Industrial/military superiority of Europe
                2. Motivation of Europe for nationalistic purposes
                3. Europeans effective medicines – quinine/malaria
             2. Internal reasons
                1. Technological backwardness
                2. Economies based on herding and small-scale agriculture
                   1. Failed to develop industrial economies
                3. Frequent intertribal and interkingdom warfare
         11. Individual European control after “Scramble for Africa”
             1. British – “Cape to Cairo” – East Africa dominated
                1. Administrative style similar to in India
                   1. “White man’s burden” approach
                   2. Took advantage of native elite
                   3. Deployed native troops in the Western style
                   4. Brought new science and technology to region
             2. French – Primarily Saharan North
                1. Civilizing mission - la mission civilisatrice
                   1. Acted reasonably responsibly
             3. Portuguese – Angola
                1. Quite harsh with African colonies
             4. Belgium – Congo
                1. Record among the worst of the Europeans
                2. Overexploited rubber trees and vines
                3. Brutally forced Congolese villagers to meet quotas
                   1. Cut off hands of those who did not meet quotas
                   2. Massacres of Congolese rubber workers
                4. Population drops from 20 million to 8.5 million
             5. Italy
                1. Poor luck in colonizing
                2. Humiliating loss to Ethiopia at Battle of Adowa
             6. Germany
                1. Recent military prowess allows them to take parts of E. Africa
                   1. Colonies that no one else wanted
                   2. Actually lost money for Germany
                2. Brutally put down rebellions
                   1. Herero Wars – genocidal – 64,000 of 80,000 slaughtered
         12. Effects of European imperialism
             1. Many African families broken up
                1. Men went to work on plantations/mines
                   1. Neglected tilling home/village plots
                   2. Led to decreased food supply and malnutrition for families
                2. Rise in the level of prostitution/STDs
                3. Women forced to grow food for mere survival
             2. Effects on European diplomacy
                1. Only intensified European conflict
                2. Otto von Bismarck’s Berlin Conference 1885
                   1. Artificial boundaries that didn’t take into account local needs
                   2. 177 ethnic groups – compromised natural economic/social growth
                3. Germans support Dutch Boers worsened Anglo-German relations
                4. One of the causes of World War I
                   1. Which led to the eventual loss of Europe’s empires
      8. Europe in Central Asia
         1. Great Game – Britain vs. Russia for control of the stans
            1. Russia wants warm water port – Indian Ocean
               1. nationalistic pride, resources (cotton), strategic policy – border
            2. British afraid they could then get Middle East/India
            3. Locked in game of espionage/intrigue – put nations on tense relationship
               1. The “Great Game” resulted
      9. Europe in the Middle East
         1. The “Eastern Question” – how to fill in void of failing Ottoman Empire
            1. Ottoman Empire seen as non-threat, predictable, held together volatile area
               1. To destroy might lead to chaos or stronger/more hostile state
            2. European countries didn’t trust each other
               1. Who would step up and take advantage of situation?
            3. Solution – nothing drastic – prop Empire up to keep it in survival
               1. Helped out Greek independence – after lengthy delay
               2. Helped Ottomans put down Muhammad Ali in Egypt
               3. Helped Turks fight Russians in Crimean War – 1856
            4. Growing conflict in Balkans – seeking independence
               1. Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria want autonomy
            5. Balkan Crisis of 1876-1878 – Balkan states get independence
               1. Russians then beat Ottoman Empire
               2. But…forced to give more peaceful terms to Ottomans
                  1. Congress of Berlin – 1878 – Europe pressures Russia
            6. Young Turks – pro-Western army officers
               1. Took control of empire in 1908
               2. Deposed Sultan – created parliamentary government
               3. Modernized military, aligned selves with Germany
               4. Social, economic, and political reforms
         2. French/British/Spanish take parts of North Africa
            1. Ottomans unable to make sure N. Africa follows Istanbul mandates
            2. Napoleon in 1798 tries to cut off Europeans from India – attacks Egypt
               1. Creates era of chaos
            3. Egypt – Muhammad Ali revolt 1805 took over Egypt from Ottomans
               1. Western-style military, modernized agricultural production – cotton
               2. Recruited large number of Europeans to teach skills – transform Egypt
               3. But…when he starts to expand empire
                  1. France and Britain step in…no one can topple Ottomans
                  2. Convinced Ali to be happy with Egypt – still weakened Ottoman
            4. N. Africa now cut off from Ottoman Empire – goes to Europe
               1. French – Algeria – 1830 – most important French colony
                  1. Like India to Britain
                  2. 150,000 colonists
               2. French – Tunisia
               3. Morocco – French then Spanish
               4. Libya - Italy
         3. Egypt goes under control of British after they paid off debts – got control of Suez Canal
            1. Ali’s grandson Isma’il decides to continue reforms
               1. Build canal across Suez land – link Mediterranean to Red Sea
               2. Built schools and hospitals
            2. Canal not a benefit to Egypt
               1. Built by French engineer, British/French companies
               2. Thousands of Egyptians died in construction
               3. Most shares in canal owned by British/French
               4. Britain owns so much they feel they have say in Egyptian economics
            3. When Britain helps put down 1881 military revolt
               1. They essentially control region – protectorate
                  1. Anglo-Egyptian Administration – yeah right…Britain calls shots
            4. Britain expands south to the Sudan
               1. After humiliating defeat by Mahdi and followers
               2. Horatio Kitchener comes in and massacres thousands with machine guns
         4. Persia
            1. Russia and Britain divide up Safavid empire – spheres of influence
               1. Russia gets North, Britain gets South
               2. Britain pour in a ton of money when oil is discovered
      10. Europe in Latin America
          1. Compared to Africa
             1. Boundary lines determined away from the scene
                1. Total disregard for societies that existed before
             2. Multiple countries held claims
             3. Governed by direct rule – except for British – granted a bit more autonomy
                1. Europeans sent in to occupy positions of authority
             4. Native traditions something to overcome, not something to be tolerated
                1. Not something to be developed
             5. Different than in China where priority was making money
                1. Not really concerned about changing entire cultures
             6. Comparing reactions to European imperialism
          2. China vs. India
             1. India – multiple Europeans traded, but British eventually dominate
                1. China – British dominated, gave way to most of Europe
             2. India – British establish colony – running government/improving infrastructure
                1. China – Europe/Japan wanted trade benefits – no government
             3. Independence movements – India targeted British
                1. China targeted Manchu Dynasty
      11. Europe in Europe
          1. “Long Peace” between 1871 and 1914, but tensions getting worse
          2. Destabilizing factors in European balance of power
             1. Nationalism – patriotism turned aggressive
             2. Competition over empire – fewer places to expand
             3. Ambitious nature of German foreign policy
                1. Wanted equal military and imperial status to older nations
                2. Openly aggressive and forceful in pursuing goals
                3. Had industrial/military power to back threats
          3. Alliance system
             1. Didn’t keep peace but guaranteed all out war
             2. Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria, Italy
             3. Triple Entente
                1. Russia no longer friendly with Germany – joins with France
                2. Britain joins – threatened by Germany’s military/industry
             4. All pledged to go to war if two sides quarreled
             5. Only way to win is if you have a knock-out blow
                1. Von Schlieffen Plan – take out France first before Russia mobilizes
                2. Ends up failing
      12. Japanese Imperialism
          1. 17th and 18th centuries Japan successfully kept Europe out
             1. Developed highly ethnocentric, self-involved society
             2. Didn’t allow citizens to travel abroad
          2. 19th century proved too difficult
             1. 1853 –US Commodore Matthew Perry scared the heck out of Japanese
                1. Came on steamship
                2. Showed off big guns
                3. Japan realize isolation led to military/economic disadvantage
             2. Like China, Europe/US set up unfair trade treaties
             3. But…Japanese nationalists – aka samurai – were organized
                1. Put Emperor Meiji into power
          3. Meiji Restoration
             1. Era of Japanese westernization
                1. Japan emerges as world power
                2. 1870s building steamships/railroads
                3. 1876 samurai class abolished – universal military service of all males
             2. 1890s industrial/military power ready to show off
                1. Kept US and Europe checked
                   1. Traded on more equal footing
                2. Extremely fast industrial revolution
             3. Expanding empire
                1. 1895 – Sino-Japanese – gain control of Taiwan and Korea
                   1. Started as Korean peasant uprising – both took sides
                2. 1904 – Russo-Japanese War – kicked Russia out of Manchuria
                   1. Asian power beat European power? Shocking!!!
                   2. Japan annoyed with Russia’s expanding Trans-Siberian Railroad
                   3. Surprise attack on Russia’s naval base at Port Arthur
                   4. Smaller army, but closer – not transported 4000 miles
                   5. Japan gets access to Liaotung Peninsula – w. of Korea
                      1. And…access to Manchuria
                3. Japan now has its sphere of influence – a world power
                4. Huge precedent
                   1. First time in 500 years, non-Western power beat Wester
                   2. No longer world’s dominant civilization
                   3. Empires would start fading over course of the century
                   4. Imperial ambitions spin out of control
          4. Meiji militarism and imperialism
             1. Nationalistic sentiment ran high during late 1800s > increased desire for empire
                1. State-sponsored religion of State Shintoism
                   1. modern revival of Japan’s ancient faith
                   2. emphasis on Japanese superiority
                   3. veneration of emperor as descendant of gods
             2. Expanded due to need for markets – resource poor nation
      13. Ottoman Empire
          1. Began decline in 16th century
          2. Continually fought foreigners at borders
             1. Russians for Balkans, Black Sea, surrounding areas – warm water port
             2. Greece, Egypt, Arabia launched successful independence movements
          3. Britain and France provide military and financial support to prop up Ottoman Empire
             1. Fear their fall could lead to a Russian takeover of region
             2. Crimean War – 1853
             3. Britain gradually gains control of region
          4. Internal factors
             1. Mediocre rulers/governmental corruption
                1. Any sultan that tried to reform had opposition from traditional groups
                   1. Armed forces – janissary-led refuse to change
                   2. Refuse to lose their privileged position
                2. Attempts at reform
                   1. Secularized to a degree
                      1. Pursued scientific knowledge in spite of clergy complaint
                   2. Tanzimat reforms – 1839-1876
                      1. Religious tolerance for non-Muslims
                      2. Schools for Western science/technology
                      3. National telegraph/postal systems
                      4. Possible Constitution
                      5. Schools for women
                   3. But…reforms alienated conservatives and not far enough liberals
      14. US Empire
          1. Monroe Doctrine - 1823
             1. Ensure Europe wouldn’t recolonize Americas
             2. US idea that used British navy to enforce
                1. British fear Spanish involvement so they’re more than willing to help
          2. Europe makes huge financial investments in Latin America
             1. But avoids territorial claims
          3. Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine – 1804
             1. Would maintain peace between Europe and Latin America over financial issues
                1. Europe goes to Venezuela with warships to collect debt
             2. Gave rise to anger in Latin America – US looks imperialistic
          4. Encourages Panama to revolt from Columbia
             1. US can then buy the rights to a canal – known as the Panama Canal
                1. Construction 1904-1914
          5. Spanish-American War
             1. US sympathizes with Cubans trying to break free from Spain
             2. Few months US defeats Spain in Cuba and Philippines
             3. US becomes world power
                1. Given territories in Guam, Puerto Rico, Philippines
                2. Two military based on Cuba, plus right to intervene if in trouble
          6. United States global importance
             1. Inspiring freedom – representative government and civil liberties
      15. Overall impact of imperialism
          1. Yes…pretty impressive – military expertise, technological mastery
             1. Brought extreme wealth to Europe and America
          2. But…Inseparable from bloodshed, racial prejudice, slavery and violence
          3. Colonization and influence left deep political scars around globe – still recovering from
          4. European foreign policy more aggressive second half of century
             1. Congress of Vienna fairly successful at keeping peace early on
             2. But…nationalism put premium on patriotic sentiment
             3. Competition over imperial possessions overseas
                1. Amount of desirable territory started to grow smaller
   8. Different cultural and political reactions
      1. Reform
      2. Resistance
      3. Rebellion
      4. Racism
      5. Nationalism
         1. Drove movements in Germany and Italy to unify
            1. Drove movements in Americas to declare independence
            2. Drove resistance to colonialism in India, China and Africa
            3. Drove Europeans to compete with each other to promote national pride by establishing colonies in the first place
            4. Drove Chinese peasant movements against Manch government
               1. Targeted for not being nationalistic enough
            5. Drove French to unite behind Napoleon to take over Europe
            6. Drove the Japanese to industrialize quickly
            7. Drove Egyptians to limit the power of the Ottomans
         2. By 1914, the world had become one where people identify strongly with nation
            1. Or with the dream of creating own nation
         3. Oppressors used nationalistic feelings to justify their superiority
         4. Oppressed used their nationalist feelings to justify their rebellion
         5. Jingoism – belligerent patriotism – British term
   9. Impact of changing European ideologies on colonial administrations

1914 to Present

1. Demographic and environmental changes
   1. Migrations
      1. Forced migration due to Peace of Paris
         1. Turks moved back to Turkey from Southeastern Europe
         2. Greeks moved back to Greece from Ottoman Empire
      2. Latin America
         1. Massive Urbanization
         2. Immigration w/in and to US – legal and illegal
      3. Massive immigration
      4. Limited immigration at times
         1. US puts quotas on immigrants in 1920s
      5. Refugees displaced during WWII
         1. Nazis then communists push West
      6. Pull factors
         1. Economic opportunity
         2. Political repression
         3. Local violence – (often caused by Cold War policies)
      7. Breakup of empires
         1. Former colonial subjects migrated
      8. Guest workers to Europe from middle east – 15 million
      9. Collapse of communism led to massive migration from Eastern Europe
      10. Benefits
          1. Much-needed labor force
          2. Enriches diversity of nation
      11. Negatives
          1. Stirs up xenophobia – nativist movements
             1. Especially when economy is tight
      12. War years
          1. WWI - Death of 10 million Europeans – generation of men
             1. European women remain unmarried
             2. Lowered European birth rate
             3. Lowered population growth for future generations
             4. Bombings/troop movements destroyed cities, industry, agriculture
          2. WWII – killed another 35 million
             1. boundary changes – hundreds of thousands of refugees
      13. Postwar population changes
          1. Labor shortages – Western Europe seeks workers from outside
             1. “guest workers” came from W. Indies, N. Africa, Turkey, Pakistan
                1. Low wages, discrimination
                2. Labor not needed later
             2. US opens door to L. America/Asian immigrants
          2. Soviet Union – Muslim population growth threatened Russian culture
             1. Industrialization severely polluted half rivers, endangered farms
             2. Responsible for respiratory diseases and infant mortality
      14. Migration patterns
          1. 1980s – South Korea highest population density in the world
          2. Japan addressed increasing population w/ birth control/abortion
          3. Latin America – population explosion plus urbanization
             1. Newcomers live in shanty towns outside urban areas
             2. Sometimes settlements incorporated into city
             3. Migration huge seeking employment
             4. Migration to US to escape political oppression and warfare
          4. Divisions of countries
             1. Partition of Pakistan and India – hundreds of thousands displaced
             2. Arab-Israeli War – 1948 – hundreds of thousands Palestinians
             3. Africa and Balkans warfare/boundary changes = refugees
          5. Migration from South Asia/Arab to oil-producing nations
      15. Population growth
          1. Religious/cultural forbidding birth control
          2. Eradicate disease
          3. Improve sanitation
          4. Better diets
   2. Changes in birthrates
      1. Population Growth
         1. 1900 – 1.6 billion to 2000 – 6 billion
            1. Developed world – population growth tended to decline
            2. Developing world – population explosion
         2. However, overconsumption of food/energy/waste/pollution still comes from developed world
   3. Changes in death rates
   4. New forms of urbanization
      1. Latin America
         1. urbanized peasants fail to have access to industry
   5. Threats to the environment
      1. Deforestation
         1. Issue between developed and developing nations
            1. Developing say they need resources to spur economy
            2. Environmentalists want to save for all people – Amazon
         2. But…hypocritical because global warming/acid rain from developed nation
      2. Global warming
      3. Acid rain
      4. Warfare
         1. US chemical warfare in South Vietnam
         2. Saddam Hussein – spilled oil into Persian Gulf, oil fields on fire
   6. Green/environmental movements
      1. Social activism and the rise of nongovernmental organizations – NGOs
         1. Demonstrations, protests, strikes
         2. Social movements, student groups lobbied and protested
         3. Most famous – 1960s
            1. Protested Vietnam War, Civil Rights in the US
            2. Temporary reform in Czechoslovakia
            3. Loosening PRI’s control of Mexico
         4. Key role in peace movements, anti-nuclear arms movements
         5. Women’s liberation, environmental
      2. Environmentalism/conservatism always around
         1. Post-World War II gained prominence
            1. Pollution and industrialization threat to ecological well-being
            2. Literature – Silent Spring – 1962 – dangers of pesticides – DDT
         2. Earth Day popularized movement
         3. NGOs – Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund – famous/influential
         4. “Green Parties” – have more political power in Europe
      3. Green Revolution
         1. Increased crop yields – high-yield, disease resistant crops
            1. Also fertilizers, pesticides, efficient irrigation
         2. Controversy – use of pesticides/fertilizer that cause cancer
            1. Only available to wealthy landowners
         3. Reactions to environmental/population issues
            1. Egypt – Presiden Nasser – Aswan Dam
               1. More farmland, but – blindness, salt in soil, lose Nile silt
            2. China – policies to limit family size
               1. One child per family
               2. But infanticide, abortion, sterilization
               3. Family members hide children in rulral areas
            3. Identified chemicals that cause ozone depletion
               1. Anti-pollution devices in cars, planes, industrial smokestacks
   7. Terrorism
      1. Since WWI – Gabrio Princip – political desires sought through terrorism
         1. Palestinian Liberation Organization
         2. Irish Republican Army
         3. Red Brigades
         4. anti-Israelis – Hamas and Hezbollah
      2. Osama bin Laden takes it to an all new level

1914 to Present

1. Diverse interpretations
   1. Is cultural convergence or diversity the best model for understanding increased intercultural contact in the twentieth century?
      1. Cultural convergence
         1. Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution all move toward globalization
         2. Led to certain ways of thinking attractive and accepted by different people
            1. People agreed on how universe/government organized
         3. Speed of globalization picked up in 20th century
            1. transportation, communication, imperialism
            2. same multinational corporations everywhere – McDonaldization
            3. Interconnectedness of economies
            4. Economic downturn one place affects everywhere
         4. So…it looks like convergence
            1. Similar gov’ts – independent, democratic, constitution
            2. economic – stock market, low barriers to trade, strong banking
            3. cultures – educated people w/ English, Hollywood movies, cellfone
      2. Globalization doesn’t mean convergence
         1. Everything is spread around world, doesn’t mean everyone accepts
            1. Not everyone likes or wants, just available
         2. Could lead to larger # of people who lash out, resist – aggressive/violent
         3. Islamic Fundamentalist countries and historical identity – France
         4. Also, self determination and nationalism huge part of 20th century
            1. People want to chart own course
            2. Europe no longer rules the world
   2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using units of analysis in the twentieth century, such as the nation, the world, the West, and the Third World?

1914 to Present

1. Global balance of power
   1. Reduction of European influence
      1. 1940s to 1970s – mass wave of decolonization
         1. Europe deprived of its empires
      2. Nations become free
   2. The League of Nations
      1. Hurt by American Congress refusal to ratify
      2. Well-meaning, but impotent to enforce plans
      3. Accomplished a great deal of humanitarian work
      4. Attempts to maintain peace and don’t fight wars
         1. Countries sign Treaty of Locarno and Kellogg-Briand Pact – outlaw war
      5. Original charter
         1. collective security for member nations
         2. disarmament
         3. arbitration of international disputes
   3. The United Nations
      1. Responsibility for settling postwar problems
      2. Led by five Allied victors – US, USSR, Great Britain, France, Republic of China
         1. Permanent members of Security Council
         2. All most vote “yes” for substantive measures
      3. Established relief agencies and peacekeeping missions
      4. US took on many of the costs – leading superpower/wealthiest nation
      5. Structure of UN
         1. Security Council – New York – keeping peace
         2. International Court of Justice – Hague – Netherlands
         3. Secretariat – administration – New York
         4. General Assembly – debate – New York
         5. Economic Social Council
            1. UNESCO – science/culture, UNICEP, children
            2. ILO – labor issues, WHO – global health, UNHCR – refugees
      6. Nations join voluntarily
         1. Cannot pass laws, but raise issues and suggest resolutions
      7. UN responses to military aggression
         1. Diplomatic protest and pressure
         2. Economic sanctions
         3. Collective military action by member states
      8. Declaration of Universal Human Rights – basic human rights of all people
   4. The Non-Aligned Nations
      1. Nonaligned movement – 110 nations – 1961
         1. Mostly developing nations seek to cooperate on political, economic, culture
   5. Post Cold War
      1. One superpower – United States
      2. Alliances and coalitions constantly shifting
      3. China increasing in power
      4. New kind of war – terrorism against citizens of enemy nations
         1. Islamic fundamentalism led to September 11, WTC bombing

1914 to Present

1. Globalization
   1. Science and technology
      1. Advancement coming at breathtaking pace
         1. Innovative physics, biotechnology, rocketry, electronics, computers
            1. Physics
               1. Albert Einstein – theory of relativity
               2. Quantum physics
               3. Atomic theory
               4. Altered understanding of astronomy
               5. Led to atomic weaponry/nuclear energy
            2. Rocketry/space science
               1. German scientists initiated research – missiles
               2. Nuclear arms race sped up research
               3. Led to satellite communication
            3. Computer
               1. Most significant postwar invention
               2. Computers and components – microchips altered a ton
               3. How people communicate, transact business, analyze data
               4. Keep records, perform medical procedures
               5. But…with ease of usage…privacy becomes an issue
            4. Internet
               1. Originally – 1960s – method of integrating gov’t, business and academic computers
               2. WWW > “global village”
               3. “digital divide” those with computer technology vs. w/out
            5. Biotechnology and genetic science
               1. DNA – James Watson and Francis Crick – 1953
               2. Unprecedented gains – how human body works
               3. Genetic theory led to medical advances
               4. Power to clone human beings – controversial
         2. Full industrialization – world moved to petroleum/electricity primary energy
         3. Instant network becomes catalyst for international integration
            1. Boundaries of civilization not as clear – easy to surpass
            2. Able to link people with common interests, but geographically separated
   2. Culture
      1. Interactions between elite and popular culture and art
      2. Might make nation-state fade away
      3. Mass media/mass communications transform cultural sphere
         1. Now cinema, radio, television, electronic media make art
         2. Used to make music, literature, art for popular audience
         3. Inexpensive production of mass quantity of books, tv, music, drama
            1. Brought to more people than ever before
         4. But...
            1. Art dumbed down to satisfy taste of the masses
            2. Media used for propaganda, brain-washing
               1. Political or marketing purposes
         5. Westernize the pop culture of entire world
            1. American Jass and Hollywood alluring
            2. Disney, McDonald’s, Coca-Cola – recognizable all over world
         6. Technology made cultural exchange possible
            1. CDs, records, tapes
               1. Teenagers in 1960s could buy music from around world
      4. Bold experimentation
         1. Distortion/abandonment of traditional norms
      5. First 2/3 of century – pessimistic/uncertainty
         1. Optimism of 1800s replaced, especially after WWI
         2. Literature deals w/ dehumanization of industrial world
         3. Stream of consciousness prose – abstract mind
         4. abstract painters distort reality – Picasso anyone
         5. Surrealists – realistic objects in unrealistic situations
         6. Existententialism – you’re on your own – no deity
      6. Today – exuberance/energy of pop culture
      7. Postmodern Art
      8. Computers/Internet lead to information revolution
      9. Ease of travel – jet engines – able to explore other cultures
      10. Art and Literature in the Non-Western world
          1. non-western artists adapt, modify and add native elements to western form
          2. Artists oftentimes speak for the people/illustrate their plight
             1. Digeo Rivera – Mexico – urban poor in paintings
             2. Lu Xun – China – gov’t fails to take care of poor/fight off foreigners
             3. Rabindranath Tagore – Hindu religious concepts
          3. Common themes
             1. Problems of decolonization, resisting US cultural hegemony
             2. Political opposition to oppressive regime
             3. Some even criticize Islamic conservatism – dangerous idea
      11. After WWI
          1. Mass consumerism – especially household appliances, automobiles
             1. Automobile decreased isolation – created teenage years
          2. Women turned to shorter skirts, hairstyles, free behavior expression
          3. Movie industry – artistic expression + entertainment
          4. Art – new style cubism
          5. Architecture – new uses of concrete and glass
          6. New skepticism
      12. After WWII
          1. Women – higher divorce, effective birth control, NOW founded
          2. 1960s – Civil rights US plus anti-war movement
          3. 1970s and 1980s – people questioned welfare state
             1. Programs decreased
             2. Economic/educational opportunities spread
      13. Culture around the world
          1. Soviet Union
             1. Soviet schools taught religion as myth, western style as decadent
             2. Factories made heavy goods, not consumer goods
             3. Spreading industrialization led to increase in movies, sports, TV
             4. 1960s West and Soviets exchange culture
             5. USSR focuses on sports and kills everybody at Olympics
          2. Japan
             1. In 1920s experienced mass consumerism
             2. After WWII, women’s suffrage no more Shintoism national religion
             3. Social security for elderly
             4. After US occupation, gov’t takes over control of student textbooks
             5. Traditions such as tea ceremony, Kabuki, No theater continue
             6. Work schedules – less leisure time than US
                1. But…baseball becomes popular
          3. China
             1. After May Fourth Movement – women get more rights
                1. Footbinding outlawed
                2. Wider educational/career opportunities
             2. Guomindang tries to reduce role of women
             3. Communists give women larger role in revolution
                1. Women can bear arms
                2. Since 1949 – women expected to work outside of home also
          4. Latin America
             1. After Mexican Revolution – murals became big – Diego Rivera
                1. Scenes from revolutions blended with folk culture
             2. Majority Catholic, but Protestant denominations spread
             3. Women retain their traditional role
                1. By end of 20th century, women controlled small businesses
                2. Become active in politics
          5. Africa
             1. Women get suffrage in new constitutions
                1. Some even given political positions – reward for role
             2. Early marriage continued
          6. Global Culture
             1. Western dominated global culture
                1. Produced disapproval in East Asian/Islamic cultures
             2. English language of commerce/Internet
             3. Western appreciation for science spread
             4. Higher emphasis on monetary wealth, education, profession
                1. Not so much on land ownership/inherited position
             5. But…some traditions continue
                1. India still holds to caste restrictions
                2. Women suffrage widespread, patriarchal societies exist
             6. Global culture still has regional traditions/characteristics
   3. Patterns of Resistance
      1. Religious Responses
      2. Huge conflict between forces of traditionalism vs. forces of change
         1. China – 1919
            1. Gov’t wants to revert to traditional Confucian values
            2. Students want democracy, technology, science
            3. Stage protests – Tiananmen Square – Beijing
               1. May Fourth Movement – because Japan annexed China

1914 to Present

1. Impact of Major Global Economic Developments
   1. The Great Depression
      1. Destroyed Europe and Latin America
         1. Reliant on American loans to recover from war
         2. Wave of bank failures has ripple effect around worlds’ banks
      2. Less effect on Africa and Asia
         1. Japan turns to military government – replaces civilian
         2. Needed natural resources – searches out territories
      3. International trade before WWII
         1. Sparked wave of protectionism
            1. Nations tried to shield industry and farms by imposing high tariffs
               1. Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act – 1930
               2. Spread Depression to Europe, L. America, Asia
               3. Destroyed ability to export to United States
      4. International Trade Before WWII
         1. Trade had existed long before 20th century
         2. Scope of trade grew between WWI and Great Depression
      5. Causes of the global depression
         1. overdependence on American loans and buying
         2. Increase in tariffs and protectionism
         3. Industrial and farming surpluses leading to deflation
         4. Poor banking management
         5. World War I
            1. Expensive - $180 billion on war, $150 billion to rebuild
            2. Capitalism financed war
            3. Financial headquarters shifts from London to New York
               1. US lent Europe tons of money
                  1. France in huge debt
                     1. Bolsheviks refuse to pay off war debts
                     2. Germany owes French tons of money
                  2. Germany in huge debt – war + reparations
                     1. Borrows from US to pay French
               2. Problem…these loans could never be repaid
            4. Stock Market crash, bank failures – no more credit to Europe
      6. Impact
         1. Political extremism
            1. Communist say capitalism is a mess
            2. Fascists want to protect enterprise and promote their nation
   2. Technology
      1. Move toward postindustrial economies
         1. Less on manufacturing, more on service, information, computers
   3. Post World War II Policies – assistance by the superpowers
      1. Rebuilding Europe after WWII
         1. Soviet Bloc – COMECON - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
            1. Economies nationalized/centrally planned
            2. Collectivization under state control
            3. Massive industrialization
            4. “socialist division of labor” – every nation focuses in a few areas
            5. Soviet welfare systems
               1. education, medical care, pensions
            6. Poor quality consuper goods
            7. Focus on heavy industry/weapons
            8. Maintained through political repression
         2. Western Europe – Marshall Plan – European Recovery Plan
            1. A “miracle” – helped prevent the spread of communism
            2. W. Germany rose from ruins – European economic powerhouse
            3. Technical innovation – move to postindustrial world
            4. Put into place social welfare systems
            5. Created “third way” – blend of capitalism and social-welfare
         3. Free trade key to economic prosperity – and world peace
            1. FD Roosevelt – believed in John Maynard Keynes – Keynsian
            2. Nations that economically interacted less likely to go to war
            3. Met in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
               1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
                  1. World Bank
               2. International Monetary Fund
            4. 1958 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
            5. USSR refused to join “Bretton Woods System”
               1. They are cut off from world trade
            6. Currency exchanges fixed on US dollar > based on gold standard
         4. Prosperity, modernization, recovery in Europe/Japan amazing
            1. Western Europe develops economic unions to protect/build Europe
               1. European Coal and Steel Community
               2. European Economic Community
               3. European Union
   4. Pacific Rim
   5. Multinational Corporations
      1. International trade increases
      2. Huge conglomerates though technically “from” a single country
         1. Maintained factories, subsidiaries, distribution networks around the world
         2. Employing foreign workers
         3. Selling directly to foreign markets
      3. Groundwork laid in 1980s and 1990s…but internet/communication/transporation made easier
      4. Criticism
         1. Exploiting regional labor
         2. Harming regional environments
         3. Preventing host economies from producing homegrown industries/mfg goods
   6. Regional diplomatic alliances
      1. European Union
         1. Out with divisive nationalism, support for union
            1. Enables Europe to boost economic strength
            2. Increase its diplomatic clout
            3. Work together to prevent war/political extremism
         2. First steps – economic
            1. 1952 – Six Nations – European Coal and Steel Company
               1. Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Italy, France, W. Germ
            2. 1957 – Treaty of Rome – European Economic Community
               1. Common Market
               2. Eliminate internal tariffs
                  1. Encourage free movement of money, goods, services, labor
               3. Gradually added Britain, Ireland, Denmark
               4. 15 members by 1990s
               5. Monetary union - Euro
      2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations – ASEAN
         1. Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Indonesia, Singapore
         2. Mostly diplomatic in nature, but tightened economic ties
      3. 1991 – African Economic Community
         1. Mimics many goals of European Union –see above
      4. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
         1. determines supply/demand
         2. Most successful and influential international coalitions in history
         3. Industrial Revolution huge boon to Middle East – sitting on 2/3 of oil
         4. When they cut prices in 1970s – billions of extra dollars to accounts
            1. Saudi Arabia uses to modernize infrastructure
         5. Since 1970s, tough to keep in line, someone always breaks deal
            1. Individual nations still have huge power
      5. Soviet Union and allies and China remained relatively isolated
   7. Economic Crisis – West in the 1970s
      1. West in the 1970s
         1. Energy shortages
            1. Oil embargo of 1973 damaged economy
         2. Recession
         3. Unemployment
         4. Slowdown of the West
         5. Stagflation – rare combination of inflation and stagnation
      2. Eastern Europe
         1. Difficult transition from communism to capitalism
      3. Devaluing of the U.S. Dollar
         1. Detached money from gold standard > monetary instability
      4. Eastern Bloc not killed by OPEC’s embargo, but…
         1. Inefficiency
         2. Food shortages
         3. Cost of the arms race
         4. Governmental corruption
      5. 1971 – Nixon takes US off the gold standard
   8. Economic Globalization During the 1990s
      1. Causes
         1. Chronologically/causally linked to fall of Soviet Union
         2. Linked to democratization of the developing world
         3. Explosion of computer technology/Internet activity
            1. Electronic transfer of money
      2. Group of Seven – G-7, then G-8
         1. US, Canada, Great Britain, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, Russia
         2. Meet more often
      3. World Trade Organization (WTO) – regulates economic interaction of 100+ nation
      4. Regional economic unions more important
         1. North American Free Trade Agreement – NAFTA
         2. Western Europe – Maastricht Treaty
            1. Common monetary system
            2. Creation of single currency
            3. Establishment of European Central Bank
            4. Common policy making for
               1. Immigration
               2. Environmental protection
               3. Foreign affairs and security issues
      5. Benefits of Globalization
         1. Created great wealth/led to prosperity
         2. Free trade helps to preserve peace
      6. Costs of Globalization
         1. So interconnected – negative trend sin one region adversely affect world
         2. Nations unwilling to turn of economic policies to WTO
         3. Leads to constant state of change/economic instability
            1. Seeking profits, corporations constantly moving to cheap production
               1. Relocating to new city/country
                  1. Best tax benefits
                  2. Most lenient environmental standards
                  3. Cheapest labor
               2. Negative effects
                  1. lowering of wages
                  2. Sudden unemployment
                  3. Social stress
         4. Farmers can’t compete with cheap food from other countries
         5. Homogenizing effects o nculture
            1. Indigenous cultures crushed
            2. Replaced with foreign, American, pop culture and values
      7. Major themes of 20th century economics
         1. active commercial and trade interactions in every region
         2. Great Depression – impact of decline of trade one region on others
            1. National tariffs in US weakened global trade
         3. Price/supply manipulations by oil-producing nations affect globe
         4. After communism, more nations implement free-market economies
         5. Regional trade associations organized to facilitate trade
         6. Mass consumerism created truly global marketplace
      8. Global trade by region
         1. Middle East
            1. 1960 OPEC founded to regulate oil prices, control distribution
            2. Southwest Asia joins international drug trade
         2. Asia
            1. 1920s – Japanese silk exports reduced – US synthetic fibres
            2. Interwar period – China prospered in global drug trade
               1. Southeast Asian rubber exports damaged
               2. Vietnam became one of leading rice exporters
                  1. But…monoculture left them hungry
            3. Japan’s regional empire supplies food/raw materials
            4. 1960s/1970s – Japanese electronics/cars cut into US market
            5. 1970s – Korea produces cheap textiles, steel, automobiles
            6. 1970s – Taiwan joins global textile trade
            7. 1980s – Hong Kong exports clothing/heavy industry
            8. Singapore 4th largest port
            9. Indonesia exports exotic woods
            10. Korea exports automobiles, supertankers, electronics
         3. Africa
            1. After WWI, Africa has no money to purchase industrial goods
            2. South African miners prosper from gold/copper mines
            3. After WWII – rely on sale of minerals/cash crops
               1. Constant fluctuation in prices hurts economic growth
            4. Nigeria – oil-producing country, member of OPEC
            5. Africa exports native art
         4. Europe
            1. During WWI, Europe surrenders export dominance to US/Japan
            2. Eastern Europe remained agricultural, exported to W. Europe
            3. 1958 – European Economic Community (Common Market)
               1. Reduces tariffs between
               2. Common tariff policy for other world nations
               3. Renamed European Union in 1990s
               4. 2002 – member nations accept Euro
                  1. Britain the exception
         5. Latin America
            1. WWI/European trade brought prosperity to L. America
               1. Forced import substitution industrialization
                  1. Have to make up for lack of European imports
            2. Great Depression kills export economy
            3. US Cuba’s leading trade partner till 1959 – fluctuation in world demand altered price
               1. Cuba’s economy tied to USSR after Cuban Revolution
               2. Economy falls apart after USSR dissolved
            4. Colombia major participant in international drug trade
            5. Brazil exports exotic woods
            6. Venezuela – member of OPEC, Mexico produces oil
         6. North America
            1. WWI -= US becomes creditor nation, huge exports
            2. US exports reach the world
               1. Food, wheat, corn, fast foods
            3. NAFTA – 1994 – abolished tariffs between US, Canada, Mexico
            4. 1999 – Seattle – demonstrators protest World Trade Organization
            5. US + advertising led to worldwide diffusion of products/culture

1914 to Present

1. Impact on the Global Framework
   1. World War I – The Great War
      1. Causes
         1. Long term causes
            1. Competition over empire
               1. race for colonies in Africa, India and Southeast Asia
               2. Delicate balance of power after Congress of Vienna eroding
            2. Anglo-German rivalry over empire
               1. Germans jealous of Britain’s navy/empire
            3. Industrial competition
            4. Naval superiority
            5. Rising intensity of nationalism in Europe
               1. Especially in Balkans
               2. Russification – insistence on acceptance of Russian Culture
                  1. Led to Pan-Slavic Movement
                     1. Bring all Slavic nations into commonwealth
                     2. Russia would be at the head
            6. Alliance system
               1. Two sides locked into place – Entente vs. Alliance
                  1. Triple Entente – France, Russia, Britain
                     1. Britain’s commitment informal, but honored
                  2. Triple Alliance – Germany, Austria, Italy
                     1. Italy changes sides
            7. France – German bitter
               1. French wanted to avenge humiliation of Prussian War – 1870
                  1. Loss of land – Alsace-Lorraine
                  2. Loss of Morrocco
               2. Both countries want a military rematch
            8. Austria – Italy
               1. Italy – Northern Territories controlled by Hapsburgs theirs
                  1. Want war to bring these territories back
               2. Russia – Austria
                  1. Austria controls domains with Slavic minorities
                  2. Leading Slavic nation – felt paternal feelings to
                     1. Czechs, Bulgars, Bonsians
            9. Short term causes
               1. Balkans – “powder keg of Europe”
               2. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and wife Sophie
                  1. Heir to Austrian throne
               3. Sarajevo had been annexed by Austria
                  1. Serbs living there and in independent Serbia angry
                  2. Bosnian student – Gavrio Princip – Black Hand
               4. Austria’s ultimatum – show Serbia who has more power
                  1. Series of humiliating demands – declare war if not followed
               5. Slavic Russia – “big brother” to the Serbs
               6. Germany – Kaiser Wilhelm II – German support for any action
               7. France has to aid Russia
               8. So…July 28, 1914 Austria declares war on Serbia
                  1. Russia, Germany start mobilizing
                  2. By August 4, major players at war
         2. War
            1. Up to 1/3 of world’s productivity going toward war
            2. Two sides
               1. Triple Entente – the Allies – Britain, France, Russia + colonies
                  1. US joins in 1917
                  2. Italy switches when promised Austrian territory
            3. The Beginning of the War
               1. The Schlieffen Plan – quick destruction of France
                  1. Avoid two-front war
                  2. Austria couldn’t have long war – would lose
                  3. Germany – 75% of army against France
                     1. Illegal invasion of Belgium on the way to France
                        1. Brought Britain into war
                        2. Hurts Germany’s reputation
                           1. Propaganda – “barbarians””huns”
                  4. 25% of army + Austrians hold off Russia
                  5. Plan failed
                     1. Belgians fought back
                     2. Russians mobilized quickly
                     3. French army made stand at Marne River
            4. The Fronts
               1. Western Front
                  1. Stalemate, evenly matched with numbers and weaponry
                  2. Charging the enemy pointless
                     1. artillery, machine guns, modern rifles
                  3. Trench warfare
                     1. 500 miles of trenches, bunkers, barbed wire
                     2. Exceptionally bloody combat with little movement
                     3. Gross conditions – lice, rats, disease, corpses
                  4. 1917 – change in tactics/weaponry
               2. Eastern Front
                  1. Much longer front – over a thousand miles
                  2. Decisive battles
                     1. Germans and Austrians won initially
                        1. Hundreds thousands miles Russian territory
                     2. Russia cut off from allies
                        1. Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria join
            5. Naval warfare and the use of submarines
               1. No traditional ship to ship battles
               2. British Royal Navy imposed blockade
               3. Germany responds with submarine warfare
                  1. Economic damage to Britain – island nation – imports
                  2. But…killed neutral boats, civilians, nations
                     1. Backfires, brings US into war
            6. Global Dimensions
               1. Started due to empire, spread throughout empire
               2. Former British colonies/dominions declare war
                  1. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
               3. 5 million Africans involved
                  1. Fought Germans in Africa
                  2. Helped with infrastructure
                  3. Brought to Western Front – thought of as cannibals
               4. Indian Sepoys and Nepalese Gurkhas in Middle East
               5. Japan took over German island colonies
               6. Austrialia/New Zealand try to take Ottoman Empire
                  1. Gallipoli a failure
               7. Ottoman Empire
                  1. Lawrence of Arabia
                     1. Convinces Arabs to rise against Ottoman Empire
                  2. Armenian genocide – first genocide of century
                     1. 500,000 > 2 million killed
            7. War’s last stages
               1. 1917 turning point
                  1. Combatants exhausted
                  2. Germany turns to unrestricted submarine warfare
                     1. Knock out Britain
                        1. Works – Britain down to 6 weeks of food
                     2. But…diplomatically causes problems
                        1. US pulled into war
                  3. Zimmerman Note – angers US
                     1. Germany tries to convince Mexico to join war
                  4. Russia falling part
                     1. Tsarist regime falls apart
                     2. Army in full retreat/mass desertions
                     3. Lenin’s Communist takeover – pulls out of war
                     4. Germany sends troops to Western Front
               2. 1918 – who’s faster
                  1. Germany moving troops to the West
                  2. American getting involved in the war
                  3. Germany has massive offensive against France
                     1. Allies hold strong – fight back
                  4. War ends on November 11, 1918
            8. The Home Front
               1. Total war
                  1. Must involve nations, mobilize all resources
                  2. Affected civilian populations deeply
               2. Conscription
                  1. Drafted more than 70 million people
               3. Economic Mobilization and Rationing
                  1. Industry geared for war
                     1. Raw material needed
                        1. iron, steel, oil, rubber, cloth
                     2. Uniforms, weapons, tanks, aircraft, ships
                  2. Agricultural production increased
                     1. Civilian populations needed
                  3. Women needed
                  4. Private enterprise coordinated/controlled by state
                  5. Food, consumer goods, strategic materials rationed
                  6. By 1918, running out of supplies
                     1. Russians sent in barefoot without weapons
               4. Restrictions on Civil Liberties
                  1. Imposed censorship on press, mass media, mail
                  2. Suspected of espionage or treason
                     1. Arrested, tried, sentences w/out due process
                  3. All political parties agree to unite
                  4. If you’re pessimistic or not patriotic enough
                     1. Might be traitor
               5. Women and the War Effort
                  1. Most significant impact
                  2. Greater production needed – but less men
                     1. Farms, factories, workplaces
                  3. Economic contributions huge
                     1. 1.35 million women in Britain
                     2. 38% of Krupp – arms producer – employees
                     3. France – minimum wage to women
         3. Effects
            1. Europe’s position badly weakened
               1. But..retained its overseas empires for three more decades
               2. Had reached zenith of position between 1870>1914
            2. Butcher’s Bill
               1. 30 nations involved
               2. 40 million casualties, 10 million killed
               3. 3-5 million civilians – disease, starvation, military action
            3. Shattered four great empires
               1. German Reich
               2. Russia’s tsarist regime
               3. Austria-Hungary’s Habsburg dynasty
               4. Ottoman Empire
            4. Shift in cultural attitudes
               1. Spirit of optimism and faith vanished
                  1. Replaced with fear, anxiety, gloom
               2. European’s view of themselves as civilized, culturally superior
                  1. Just a bit shattered
            5. US emerges as leader
               1. Actually benefits from war
               2. Geographically untouched
            6. Social changes
               1. Final decline of the aristocracy
               2. Rise of the middle and lower classes
               3. Democratization of European politics
               4. Complete industrialization and modernization of Europ economies
               5. Women’s suffrage
            7. Independence movements around the world
               1. Colonial possessions becoming restless
               2. Not if they’d be independent, but when and how
            8. Paris Peace Conference
               1. Participants
                  1. All Allied Nations invited, Central Powers left out
                  2. Five treaties for each defeated nation
                     1. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman
                  3. Treaty of Versailles – agreement w/ Germany
                     1. Agreed to on June 28, 1919
               2. Ideological disagreements
                  1. American idealism vs. European desire for revenge
                     1. Wilson – make world “safe for democracy”
                        1. Fourteen Points
                           1. End to secret treaties
                           2. Freedom of the seas
                           3. Arms reduction
                           4. Decolonization
                           5. Self-determination
                           6. League of Nations – for disputes
                     2. Clemenceau – make Germany pay
                        1. Feared Germany rising again
                        2. Justify human/financial cost of war
                     3. Italy wanted Austrian land/German colonies
                  2. European victors opposed decolonization
            9. Terms of the Treaties
               1. League of Nations created, but US Congress doesn’t ratify
               2. Fourteen Points watered down or ignored
               3. Main points
                  1. Dismantling of Austria-Hungary – split and lost territory
                  2. New nations from Hapsburg Empire – “self determination”
                     1. Yugoslovia, Czech, Poland, Finland, Latvia
                     2. Lithuania, Estonia
                  3. Italy gets some of Austrian Empire – Tyrol
                     1. But not Adriatic Coast stuff
                  4. Forced immigration
                     1. Turks moved to Ottoman Empire
                     2. Greeks moved back to Greece
                  5. Middle East
                     1. Ottoman Empire stripped of possessions
                     2. Arab lands temporarily controlled by France/Britain
                        1. Mandate system supervised by League of Na
                     3. Arabs annoyed – thought granted independence
                     4. Britain takes control of Palestine
                        1. Balfour Declaration
                        2. Delayed creating Jewish homeland
               4. Treaty of Versailles
                  1. War guilt – Article 231 – Germany must accept full blame
                  2. Loss of territory
                     1. Lost 13% of territory, 6 million people
                     2. Alsace and Lorraine go to France
                     3. Poland, Belgium, Denmark get land also
                     4. Rhineland to remain demilitarized forever
                  3. Loss of colonies – all colonies taken – controlled by Allies
                  4. Disarmament – No military aircraft, submarines, battleships
                     1. Only small artillery and 100,000 soldiers
                  5. War payments – reparations
                     1. Germany pay for full cost of war - $32 billion (400)
                     2. War payments until 1961
            10. Problems of Paris Peace Conference
                1. Made out of greed/revenge
                2. Ignorant creation of Eastern European nations – fall into chaos
                3. Harsh treatment (economic especially) of Germany would anger
            11. Long Term Effects
                1. Countless people made homeless/stateless
                2. Global epidemic of Spanish flu – 20 million people killed in world
                3. Destruction of eastern and central European empires
                4. Communism in Russia
                5. Instability in Eastern Europe – economic/political chaos
                6. social transformation – death to aristocracy
                7. Women’s suffrage – proved could do “man’s work”
                8. German resentment at peace treaty – anger
                9. General decline of European economic/global power
                   1. Hard to control global empires, some lost them
                10. Sense of uncertainty and anxiety – loss of faith in progress
                11. Separation of ethnic groups across several nation-states
                    1. Led to World War II
                12. Russia lost Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia Poland from its territory
                13. European colonialism didn’t end – former German territories become mandates
            12. Outcomes
                1. Britain destroyed – lost youth, debts, empire tired and a burden
                2. France – nation blasted flat, war widows/amputees everywhere
                3. Japan – fought for Allies, disappointed at Versailles
                   1. Postwar economic downturn led to political/econ problems
                   2. Couldn’t keep territory won from Germany
                4. Italy – didn’t receive as much land as they wanted
                5. United States – elevated to world power status, but doesn’t want it
                6. China – entered war late, lost land to Japan
                7. Russia – fell apart, Civil War (Reds vs. Whites), USSR formed
                8. Germany – economically/politically destroyed
            13. Monarchy gone, but Weimar Republic not trusted/legitimate
   2. World War II
      1. Causes
         1. Aggression on part of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, militaristic Japan
            1. Initially aggression met with passive response – appeasement
               1. Depression a killer
               2. Want to avoid another WWI
               3. League of Nations useless
         2. Hitler’s steps to war
            1. Ignores Versailles
               1. Rebuilds army
               2. Puts troops in Rhineland (supposed to be demilitarized)
            2. Supports Fascist govt in Spain
               1. Stalin goes it alone – annoyed with Brits/US
               2. Anti-Comintern Pact – anti-communism – Axis Powers
            3. Annexes Austria – Anschluss – “union”
            4. Sudetenland – Munich Agreement – takes rest of Czechoslovakia
               1. Pinnacle of appeasement
               2. Chamberlain looks like an idiot – “peace in our time”
               3. Stalin believes Britain/France bumbling idiots
                  1. Signs secret deal w/ Hitler
                     1. Agree to not fight, divide up Poland
               4. Hitler looks smart when he takes rest of Czec
         3. Japan’s steps to war
            1. military takes control of government
            2. Takes Manchuria – renames Manchuko – Pu Yi as emperor
            3. Japan invades mainland China – commits a ton of atrocities
            4. Japanese fight in Siberia – undeclared war
            5. Japan attacks US Pearl Harbor
            6. starts taking over Southeast Asia – kicking out European colonist
         4. Economic causes
            1. huge reparations paid by Germany
            2. spiraling inflation in Germany
            3. decrease in prices for farm products, especially US
            4. collapse of the US Stock Market
            5. deepening worldwide depression
            6. Japan lacked energy resources for industrial development
         5. Political problems
            1. anger and frustration over the peace treaty – Hitler/Mussolini
      2. War
         1. New Technology
            1. Unlike WWI, not defensive warfare
            2. Favors rapid, dynamic warfare
            3. Aircraft carriers, landing craft, long-range submarines
            4. New artillery – distance huge
            5. strategic bombers – thousands of miles, kill civilians
            6. Makes war more global, more deadly
            7. Led to secondary civilian technology
               1. radar, jet aircraft, synthetic materials (nylon)
               2. rocketry, atomic energy, computer science
         2. Blitzkrieg “lightning war”
            1. Tanks + airplanes + troops – penetrate deeply
            2. France/Britain wait for Germany, think defense best, wrong war
               1. “phony war” – Sitzkrieg – winter of waiting for attack
            3. Spring/Summer 1940 – Hitler takes Western Europe
               1. Weeks, days, months – super fast
               2. France gone in 6 weeks
                  1. Maginot Line just not that effective
            4. Britain left alone to fight Italy, Germany
               1. Battle of Britain – knock Britain out of war
                  1. Royal Navy prevents invasion
                  2. Royal Air Force/Radar protects skies
                  3. Economic aid from US and Canada
            5. US helps with Lend-Lease program
         3. Germany goes South and East
            1. Protects Italy in Africa
            2. Operation Barbarossa – Invades Soviet Union
               1. 60-75% of Germany army fighting in USSR
                  1. Smart movie Adolph
               2. Reached Leningrad, Moscow
                  1. But winter and resilient population defeated Germany
         4. Japanese aggression
            1. European struggles in Europe makes it hard to protect colonies
               1. Southeast Asia goes to Japan
            2. Wants to establish Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere
            3. US imposes economic sanctions in response to aggression
               1. Japan needs US steel, oil raw materials
               2. Embargo act of war, so…
            4. Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, takes over Pacific
            5. Brings US into war
               1. Now you have most productive economy +
               2. Incredible natural resources and manpower
                  1. No one can match America’s military industrialization + mass conscription of troops
         5. Civilians as targets
            1. Hitler killed 12 million Jews, gypsies, Slaves, religious groups
            2. Japan killed 300,000 civilians – mostly in Nanking
            3. Allied firebombing of Japanese cities and Dresden/Germany
            4. Atomic bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima
         6. Allies on the Offensive
            1. Axis skill and quality armed forces vs.
            2. Allied geographic size, humanpower, economies, natural resources
               1. Longer war lasts, better chance Allies win
               2. Japan’s failure to take US, Germany’s fails Britain/USSR
            3. Turning point 1942 – Axis loses all three battles
               1. Midway – US Navy destroys Japanese aircraft fleet
               2. El Alamein – British defeat Rommell’s German tanks
               3. Stalingrad – Soviets prevent taking of S. Russia/oil
            4. Shifting Tide – 1943-1944
               1. Pacific – pushed Japan west + guerilla fighting
               2. Allies take N. Africa, invade Italy
               3. June 1944 – Normandy – Operation Overlord – D-Day
                  1. Hitler now has 3 front war
            5. War at sea and in the air
               1. At sea, defeats submarine fleet
               2. Allies control skies after 1943 – bomb Germany indiscrimat
               3. 1944 – bomb Japan constantly
            6. End of World War II
               1. May 1945 Germany surrenders – surrounded
               2. Japan continues with no chance of winning
                  1. Truman doesn’t want to invade
                  2. Traditional bombing not defeating Japan
               3. Atomic bomb
                  1. Japan warned
                  2. Aug. 6 Enola Gay > Hiroshima
                  3. August 9 > Nagasaki
                     1. Hundreds of thousands killed
                  4. Japan agrees to cease fire
      3. Effects
         1. Europe in paradoxical situation
            1. Became Cold War battleground
            2. Dismantled Europe’s global dominance
            3. After repair, enjoyed greatest prosperity ever
               1. Wealthies/most technologically advanced in world
               2. Even Eastern Europe recovered and industrialized
         2. Short term effects
            1. Huge refuges – “displaced persons”
            2. Nations/cities in ruins
            3. Poverty horrendous
            4. Shortage of food, clothing, consumer goods
            5. Colonies push for independence
               1. In some cases, causes European gov’t to collapse - Algeria
         3. Left world power divided between US and USSR
         4. State of world after war
            1. United States occupied Japan
            2. Korea divided between US and USSR
            3. China regained territory – civil war between Nationalists/Communis
            4. Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia become Soviet provinces
            5. Czechoslovakia, Hungaria, Bulgaria, Romania occupied
            6. Colonies renewed independence efforts
            7. European world dominance ended
            8. International dominance between two superpowers – USSR/USA
   3. The Holocaust and other war crimes
      1. 73 months of fighting – countless war crimes
         1. Half of 60 million killed were civilians
         2. Behavior fell outside the lines of international law/acceptable behavior
         3. “crimes against humanity” term emerges from WWII
      2. All sides guilty
         1. Axis Powers – holocaust/rape of China
         2. Soviet Union
            1. Rape, plunder, destruction of civilian property in E. Europe
         3. USA/British
            1. Strategic/carpet bombing of civilian areas
            2. Using atomic bomb?
      3. Japanese War Crimes
         1. Before WWII, Japan had committed thousands of atrocities
            1. Worse – Rape of Nanjing – 200-400,000
         2. Killed countless prisoners of war
            1. Against rules of military combat
         3. Prisoners of war used as scientific experiments – Unit 731
         4. “Comfort women” in Korea and Southeast Asia
            1. Forced into prostitution for Japanese soldiers
         5. During Tokyo Trials, Japan tried for these crimes
      4. Nazi Atrocities – based on notions of racial purity
         1. Before war, Nazis had created system of terror
            1. Secret police (Gestapo) and concentration camps (Dachau)
               1. Dissidents, religious figures imprisoned/executed
            2. Euthanize medical patients with incurable diseases, venereal disease, tuberculosis – homosexuals (mentally disabled)
            3. Performed medical and scientific experiments
               1. Usually mutilated or killed
         2. Racial policy/genocide
            1. Targeted groups deemed “subhuman” or “undesirable”
               1. Slaves, gypsies, Jews
         3. Series of laws against Jews
            1. Nuremberg Laws of 1935
         4. Violence doesn’t become “official” policy until WWII
            1. November 1938 – Kristallnacht “Night of Broken Glass”
               1. Jewish shops, synagogues, homes burned
         5. As Nazis took over more territory, more Jews rounded up
      5. Stages of the Holocaust – Final Solution
         1. 1939-1940
            1. Yellow star, ghettos, imprisoned in camps, sporadic execution
         2. 1941
            1. Execution of all Communist Members – invading USSR
            2. Orders to prepare for the “Final Solution”
            3. “special action squads” Einsatzgruppen – kill Jews in USSR
               1. too slow, too wasteful, hard on morale, buried bodies
            4. Experiments carried out to find “efficient” method
            5. Cyanide-based insecticide – Zyklon-B used
         3. 1942
            1. Wannsee Conference – decide on “Final Solution” – 15 meet
            2. Extermination camps go into operation
         4. 1943-1945
            1. Jews shipped from all over, gassed, cremated
            2. Soviet liberation of camps in Poland – 1944
            3. Camps in west liberated by US/Brits in 1945
         5. 12 million deaths – 6 million Jews
         6. Nuremberg Trials – Americans, British, Soviets
            1. Court for remaining military/political leaders
   4. The Cold War
      1. Overview
         1. Used nations as pawns in their struggle
            1. US/USSR never went to war against each other, but…
            2. Dozens of small/medium-sized war – 50 million deaths
         2. Fundamental shift in world power
            1. Previous 200 years, power in hands of Europe
               1. Shifting power between 6/7 nations
            2. But…Europe devastated by war
         3. Bipolar Equilibrium – two nations, evenly matched share global power
            1. Democratic capitalism vs. communism
            2. Deadliest arms race
         4. Both nations hugely wealthier/more powerful than any other power
         5. Affected decolonization
            1. Newly freed nations had to choose who to ally with
         6. Major features of competition
            1. Technological
               1. Arms race, space race
            2. Geopolitical
               1. vied for influence across globe
               2. Especially in developing nations
               3. Weapons training provided to side
            3. Ideological
               1. Capitalism vs. communism – which do you want
               2. Led to the division of nations
                  1. N. and S. Korea
                  2. N. and S. Vietnam
                  3. E. and W. Germany
                  4. People’s Republic of China vs. Republic of China
         7. Local conflicts before 1991
            1. Surrogate wars where superpowers didn’t fight, but…
               1. Supported combatants on both sides
      2. Wartime Diplomacy
         1. Alliance with Stalin only because needed to defeat Hitler
            1. Tension from the beginning
         2. Issues dealt with at Teheran, Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
            1. Second Front – D-Day Normandy planned
            2. Stalin agrees to declare war on Japan after Germans defeated
               1. In exchange he wants territory and Korea divided
            3. Treatment of Germany – divided into four sectors
               1. Berlin in Soviet zone – but access to rail, road, train
               2. Denazification – former Nazis removed from office
               3. Germany also divided
               4. $20 billion in reparations
            4. United Nations – Roosevelt convinces Chruchill, Stalin
            5. Fate of Eastern Europe – toughest issue
               1. Soviet troops occupy all of Eastern Europe
                  1. Stalin wants for sphere of influence
                  2. Can’t push or he won’t fight Hitler
               2. Agreement at Yalta
                  1. Soviets can have influence, but…
                  2. They have to allow free elections
         3. Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
            1. 44 Allied countries meet to discuss future
               1. Committed to economic growth, free trade, stable money
            2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
               1. aka World Bank
            3. International Monetary Fund
               1. Goal…rebuild Europe
               2. Lend assistance to Latin American, African, Asian countries
            4. Exchange rates tied to US dollar, which was tied to gold
            5. USSR refuses, isolates itself from the “First World”
         4. Churchill/Roosevelt criticized when “secret agreements” made public
            1. Abandoned Poland, E. Germany, Eastern Europe, China - communis
      3. The Cold War Begins
         1. Cold War begins with tensions before end of WWII
         2. 1945-1949 – first phase concerned with Europe
            1. Europe becomes superpowers’ battleground
            2. Europe divided into two camps separated by “Iron Curtain”
               1. West – NATO + European Union + Marshall Plan
               2. East – Warsaw Pact + COMECON
            3. Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe
               1. All but Yugosloavia – Tito and Albania
                  1. Created independent communist regimes
               2. The rest under control/influence of USSR
            4. Soviets push communism/support parties in
               1. Greece, Turkey, Iran
            5. Soviets reasoning
               1. Destroyed by war
                  1. 30 million people dead
                  2. 1/3 of economy destroyed
                     1. Wants buffer zone
                     2. Stalin feels vulnerable due to atomic bomb
                  3. Provoke US as far as can go
                     1. Thus the Berlin Blockade and Airlift
            6. US response – Containment – free world keeps USSR from expand
               1. Truman Doctrine
                  1. moral/material aid to countries fighting communism
                  2. Saves Greece and Turkey from communism
               2. Marshall Plan
                  1. Try to avoid Great Depression – poverty = extremism
                  2. Put $13 billion into economy
                  3. Resistance in US Congress
                     1. end any chance of working w/ USSR
                     2. reestablish US as imperial power
                     3. bankrupt the nation
                     4. set up Europe as competitors for markets
                     5. should be aimed at Asia not Europe
               3. NATO – military alliance
                  1. Troops remain in Europe – trip wire
                     1. As soon as one attacked, US in war
               4. All of these = containment
                  1. USSR would expand as far as it could
                  2. Must be contained
                  3. Philosophy
                     1. Not war
                     2. Economic/military aid to those in need
                  4. Problem – Soviets act, US reacts
                  5. Affected how US chose allies
                     1. Not communist? We’ll support you.
                  6. Spend a ton of money in arms race
            7. Resistance to Soviet rule
               1. Hungarian revolt 1956 put down by Soviets
               2. Prague Spring – Czech – 1968
                  1. Resistance to censorship = Soviet invasion
               3. Poland – Soviet rule relaxed – land ownership/religion
      4. The Cold War Globalizes
         1. Globalization of the Cold War
            1. 1949 turning point – US creates NATO, USSR has nuclear bomb
               1. Civil War – Mao vs. Chaing Kai Shek comes to an end
                  1. China allies with Russia
               2. Two largest nations on earth now joined by Communism
            2. Arena of Cold War would become Asia, Africa, Latin America
         2. The Korean War
            1. N. Korea invades S. Korea
            2. US and United Nations come to the aide of S. Korea
            3. Push N. Korea back until Chinese “volunteers” advance
            4. Cease fire puts boundaries at original line
            5. 1.25 million casualties
         3. New issues
            1. Stalin replaced by Khrushchev
               1. More global, but more unpredictable
            2. Nuclear Arms Race
               1. By 1960s, both had missiles, ICBMs, and submarine nukes
               2. Quantity kept increasing, though enough to blow up world
               3. Have to be extremely wary of catalyst that would start war
               4. MAD – mutually assured destruction – a deterrent, you’ll die
            3. The concept of the Third World
               1. Europe already divided, any shift could lead to war
               2. However, Africa, Asia, Europe prime targets
                  1. Modernizing and decolonizing
                  2. Who will have your back?
               3. USSR/China actively spread communism – Comintern
               4. US tried to stop – “domino theory” – one goes, they all go
                  1. US willing to choose bad allies, better than Commun.
                     1. Dictators or authoritarian leaders
         4. The 1950s
            1. Khrushchev liberalizes, but also a firm hand
               1. Hungary invaded when it tries to leave Soviet Bloc – 1956
            2. Europe has minimal power – USSR/USA support Egypt’s natinonali
               1. France/England have to back down – give up Suez
            3. Space race – rocket technology linked to nuclear prowess – 1957
            4. Cuban Revolution – proximity to US key point
         5. The 1960s
            1. Tension of the first part
               1. U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers shot down – spying
               2. John F. Kennedy approves failed invasion of Cuba
                  1. Bay of Pigs – US embarrassed
               3. Yuri Gagarin first man in space – not an American
               4. Berlin Wall vs. Kennedy “I am a Berliner”
               5. Soviets ship rockets to Cuba > Cuban Missile Crisis
                  1. Leads to quarantine/blockade
                  2. Closest to WWIII
                  3. USSR pulls out in exchange for
                     1. US removes Turkey missiles
                     2. Promises to not invade Cuba
            2. Mid>Late 1960s
               1. Scared to death how close they came, start to cool off
                  1. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
                  2. Install “hot line” “red phone” – avoid Cub.MisCris
               2. Brezhnev takes over – more hardline
                  1. Focuses energy on Soviet Bloc countries
               3. US wins space race – 1969 man on the moon
               4. USSR/China split – Sino-Soviet Split
                  1. Disagreed on path of communism internationally
                     1. China – unite non-aligned nations
                        1. India/Indonesia etc.
                        2. Use these to combat Soviets
                  2. Mao tired of being treated as “younger brother”
                  3. Chinese felt treated as racially inferior
                  4. Border becomes militarized zone
                  5. US took advantage of split
            3. The Vietnam War
               1. Superpowers intervene in many civil/anticolonial wars
               2. Ho Chi Minh wants independence from French
                  1. US doesn’t want Ho Chi Minh
                  2. End up supporting unpopular dictator in South
                     1. Sends military to support South gov’t
               3. US eventually pulls out, Vietnam goes Communist
      5. Latin America as Cold War Battlefield
         1. All military dictatorships heavily in debt to United States
         2. Cuba attempted to export Marxist revolution to Latin America
            1. US supports any regime that opposes communism
            2. Pro-US regimes usually dictatorial and right-wing
         3. Perfect example of Cold War politics – Nicaraguan Revolution
            1. Marxist, Soviet-supported Sandinista movement
               1. Overthrows Somoza dictatorship – US supported
            2. US supports counterrevolutionary contras
            3. Becomes essentially a proxy war between US and USSR
      6. The Late Stages of the Cold War
         1. Détente – 1970s
            1. Both sides agree to relax tensions
               1. Economically suffering
                  1. USSR needs grain shipments
               2. US still wounded from Vietnam
               3. USSR fears US and China becoming allies
            2. Still conflict around the world, plus arms race, but…
            3. Starting to work together
               1. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty – prevent spread to other nations
               2. Signed first arms control treaties SALT – 1972
               3. Both sponsor Apollo-Soyuz space mission
               4. Helsinki Accords – USSR agrees to more human rights
         2. The Cold War resumes – 1980s
            1. USSR invades Afghanistan – threatens oil
            2. US elects Ronald Reagan – conservative, hard-line foreign affairs
            3. Arms race intensifies - $300 billion a year
            4. Publicly both very aggressive
               1. USSR called “evil empire”
               2. Both boycott Olympics
         3. The Cold War Ends
            1. Steady internal collapse of USSR
               1. Brezhnev and two successors die quickly
            2. Gorbachev tries to reform USSR – can’t keep up with USA
               1. Allows E. European nations to free themselves
               2. Enters into arms negotiations
               3. Berlin Wall comes down in 1989 – symbol of “iron curtain”
               4. 1991 – USSR collapses
   5. Nuclear weaponry
      1. Cold War
      2. Largest and most expensive weapons buildup in world history
         1. 1949 USSR explodes atomic bomb – let the race begin
         2. Both sides built up stockpiles of weapons and threatened each other
         3. Deterrence – both sides afraid to strike, fear of being destroyed
            1. Mutually Assured Destruction – MAD
      3. Détente – Nixon tries to ease tensions with USSR
         1. 1969 – nuclear nonproliferation treaty
         2. USSR needs wheat from US
         3. USSR wants to improve position against China
         4. SALT – Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties – limit antiballistic missiles
            1. Cooperate on health research, space exploration, trade, pollution
   6. International organizations
      1. Rebuilding Europe after WWII
         1. Soviet Bloc – COMECON - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
            1. Economies nationalized/centrally planned
            2. Collectivization under state control
            3. Massive industrialization
            4. “socialist division of labor” – every nation focuses in a few areas
            5. Soviet welfare systems
               1. education, medical care, pensions
            6. Poor quality consuper goods
            7. Focus on heavy industry/weapons
            8. Maintained through political repression
         2. Western Europe – Marshall Plan – European Recovery Plan
            1. A “miracle” – helped prevent the spread of communism
            2. W. Germany rose from ruins – European economic powerhouse
            3. Technical innovation – move to postindustrial world
            4. Put into place social welfare systems
            5. Created “third way” – blend of capitalism and social-welfare
      2. Military
         1. NATO
         2. Warsaw Pact
      3. Economic
      4. Political
      5. Human Rights
         1. League of Nations
   7. Emergence of the United States
      1. Became world’s richest and most powerful nation
      2. United States taken role as police officer/peace negotiator for the world
         1. Sent troops to Grenada, Somalia and Berlin to protect people/interests
         2. Acted as mediator between Israel/Palestinians, N. Ireland
         3. Used diplomacy to create wide coalition of support
            1. Persian Gulf War/Taliban in Afghanistan
      3. Willingness to engage in diplomatic dialogue shifted with War in Iraq
   8. New challenges
      1. Iraq – annexed oil rich Kuwait in 1990 led to Persian Gulf War
         1. 2003 – Iraq War – Weapons Mass Destruction/oppressive regime
      2. India/Pakistan – 1998 announce nuclear weapons
         1. Still fight over Kashmir region
      3. North Korea developing nuclear weapons
      4. Africa/Asia
         1. Lack resources to develop
            1. Look to World Bank and International Monetary Fund
         2. Violent ethnic conflicts
         3. Warfare continues between US and Iraq, and US and Afghanistan
      5. Good news
         1. South Africa ends apartheid
         2. India world’s largest democracy
         3. New governments based on civil rights in Iraq and Afghanistan