Please click below to download the AP European History Outline for Chapter 1 - The Rise of Europe from the A History of the Modern World, 9th Edition Textbook.

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Renaissance Society

Renaissance = re-birth of classical culture

• the birth of a NEW spirit of self awareness
• sense of relief after a disastrous 14th century
• sense of self assertion & celebration of the human spirit / potential

1. Artistic achievement

Renaissance can be dated as 1350-1550, and broken down into three distinct phases:

• Phase 1: 1350-1400: declining population, rediscovery of classical knowledge
• Phase 2: 1400-1500: artistic / literary achievements, population recovered, govt. stabilized
• Phase 3: 1500-1550: Fr. / Sp. Invasions spread the Renaissance to all of Europe

Environment:

• Italian cities never totally disappeared as the had in the rest of Europe

1. Late Middle Ages Italian cities represented 25% of the population
2. By 1500 7/10 of the largest cities were Italian
3. Developed into City-States, cities function as centers of political and ecclesiastical power

• Countryside developed around the city

• Rural Society: Landownership / sharecropping distinguished the social structure (80% subsistence farmers)
• Urban Society: divided by occupation

1. Monopolies were standard (guilds)

• Economic change in the early Renaissance

1. Black Death
2. Over production, aggregate demand declined, prices declined, labor supply declined, wages increased

• standard of living increased for the poor
• wealthy consumption pattern became increasingly conspicuous (lack of motivation for investment, heightened sense of mortality)
• Consumption of luxuries placed a higher value on skilled craftsmen (creativity)

Family Unit:

• Primary economic unit, as well as a grouping of relatives

1. Marriage was a political / economic transaction

• Patronage, dowry and status were primary considerations

1. Men married in their thirties (social dysfunction), women in late teens
2. Married women lived in a constant state of pregnancy (family interests)

• Wealthy hired help, poor experienced high mortality rates

1. Life for the poor improved (but was still fairly terrible)
2. Health increased - due to increased grain supply relative to population and new foods
3. Starvation remained rare - died from disease before you could starve

Renaissance Art

• Art represented a combination of individual talent and predominate social ideals

1. Leading edge of society
2. Technical innovations - perspective & three dimensionality

• Driven by societal demands
• Civic architecture - govt.
• Portrait painting - reflected the importance of individuals (prestige)

1. Elite patronized the arts (investment & prestige) and the skill craftsmen (practical) whob produced it

Renaissance Art can be broken down into three mediums: Architecture, sculpture and painting

• Most artists worked in all three mediums

Architecture:

• Designed and built by Renaissance Artists (great buildings increased one's fame and prestige)

Middle Ages: Gothic Architecture, pointed arches, vaulted ceilings, slender spires, large windows, flying buttresses.

• Goal was to overwhelm the viewer with the power and might of god.

Renaissance: reincorporation of classical features

• Brunelleschi - combined gothic and classical architecture

1. Florence Cathedral

Sculpture

• Donatello: created a flowing sense of reality, especially in the robes and clothes of his subjects

1. Judith Slaying Holofernes (1455), demonstrated perspective and is free standing

Painting

• Massaccio: used light and shading to create perspective, increased the display of human emotion (the human experience became the subject of the painting)

1. The Expulsion of Adam and Eve (1425)
2. The Holy Trinity (1425)

• Piero Della Francesca

1. The Resurrection (1463) - displayed technical innovations

• Botticelli: famous for classical themes and bright colors

1. The Birth of Venus (1478)
2. Spring (1478)

• Leonardo da Vinci: Great master famous for observation of detail and use of perspective

1. The Last Supper (1495-98)
2. La Giocada (Mona Lisa)

• Michelangelo

1. Pieta: sculpture of Madonna, new representation
2. David: union of classical sculpture and Renaissance style
3. Sistine Chapel: overwhelming accomplishment, portrays a narative of the Christian creation myth
4. Saint Peter's Basilica: Begun by Bramante, finished by Michelangelo

Renaissance Ideals
Humanism: reaction to an intellectual world that was centered on the church doctrine

• Secular outlook, NOT NECESSARILY anti-religious

1. Emphasis on human achievement

• Studied and taught “humanities” – liberal arts

1. Applied their ideas to spiritual / secular world
2. Petarch: “father of Humanism” – Cicero
3. Bruni: Greek scholar who advanced Platonic ideals
4. Alberti
5. Valla: Philology

Humanists and classical studies

• Byzantine scholars (fleeing Muslim expansion) were influential

• Developed new standards for studying classical texts and new educational standards

1. Liberal Arts: rhetoric, grammar, moral philosophy, philology and history

• intent: boost the abilities of the individual to reason and think

Philology: study of words, their origins and correct usage provided the first challenge of humanist thought to the Church intellectual tradition

• Valla disproved the Donation of Constantine (tax exemption of the church)

Civic Humanism

• Leon Battista Alberti: On the Family (1443), looked at newly emerging civic virtues
• Baldesar Castiglione: The Courtier (1528), etiquette book for the elite seeking power and influence, advocated the moralistic and traditional exercise of power
• Nicolo Machiavelli: The Prince (1513), discussion of amorality in civic leadership and Discourses on Livy (1519)

1. Impact:

• Intertwining of Classical and Renaissance worlds
• Explained how and why Princes gained and maintained power
• Represents the first purely secular understanding of govt.

1. removed divine authority

4. First attempt to explain the actions of govt. using a scientific methodology

• Key axiom was Machiavelli’s association of the Prince and peoples interest as the same
• Thus virtuous Prince was defined as a one who gained and maintained power
• Any action that increased a Prince’s virtue was good, thus power became an end that justified any means

The Politics of the Italian City-States
Background:

• The collapse of the HRE and the Great Schism left no unifying force in Italy
• Guilds and powerful families took over regional governments:

1. Mediterranean trade enriched guild members and merchant families
2. HRE provided a vast market for manufactured goods of the Italian guilds
3. City-states had enough agriculture to sustain their populations

Five Powers of Italy:

• Papal States: Rome. Politics dominated by the Pope and a collection of powerful families.
• Florence: Republic on paper, but came under the control of the Medici faction.

• Major industries were textiles (wool, cotton and silk) and finance
• Established bank branches throughout Europe
• External conflicts led to a financial crisis
• Cosimo de Medici financed govt. and took control
• Lorenzo the Magnificent: assassination attempt, glorification of Florence

• Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in Florence 1494-98; (predicted French invasion due to paganism and moral decay of Italian city-states); burned at the stake

• Milan: Located just south of the Alps, Milan provided manufactured goods to the French and HRE

• Dominated for much of their history by the Visconti despotism and fear of Germanic invasion
• Sforza took over during da Vinci’s stay in Milan

• Naples: Hereditary monarchy. Eventually taken over by Spanish
  Venice: Key to their success was their role in Mediterranean trade.

• Maritime power
• Oligarchy of wealthy merchant / guilds people (hereditary elite)
• Special treaty with the Byzantine Empire that allowed them exclusive trade rights
• Government controlled trade, ensured profitability

• Impact: Italy exported manufactured goods, capital resources and cultural innovations.
  Decline of Italian City States:

• Established the Peace of Lodi: Major powers would not fight one another

1. Instead they gobbled up the rest of Italy
2. Massive mistrust developed

• Rise of the Ottoman Turks

1. Mehmed II Conquered Constantinople in 1453 and threatened Eastern Europe
2. Cut off much of the profitable trade that the Italian City-States relied on

• Wars of Italy (1494-1529)

1. Naples, Florence & Rome v. Milan + France (secret alliance)
2. Venetians allied with Spain / HRE

• Result: Almost everyone in Europe is fighting in Italy, but he Italians (like WWII)
  Germans Sack Rome in 1527, significance is that it ends the Renaissance in Italy

Northern Renaissance

• Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers to improve society
• Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In Praise of Folly most famous intellectual of his times criticized the church: “Erasmus lay the egg that Luther hatched”
• Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an island; but to achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights

Northern Renaissance Art

• Low Countries produced especially important artists
• Jan Van Eyck – Flemish painter, detailed realistic works
• Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) German – foremost northern Renaissance artist.
• Myscticism: belief in personal relationship with God

Contrasting the Renaissance and Later Middle Ages (from on-line source)

European Encounters

Classical understanding of the earth:

• Ptolemy: spherical world, distorted distances

1. Educated people did not understand the earth as flat despite common mythology and common sense logic

Reasons for increased European Encounters with the rest of the world:

• Technological advances (permissive cause)
• Ottoman expansion (Mehmed II and fall of Constantinople) threatened to cut off Europe’s access to Eastern goods
• Spices and Eastern goods were in high demand at all levels of society
• food preservative & deodorizer
• Looming financial crisis in Western Europe

1. West needed Eastern goods (Spice, silk & cotton), but the East had no need of Western goods (metals & weapons)

• Result: Outflow of capital place Western gold reserves in a dangerously low position, exploration was as much a search for precious metal as it was new trade routes

Portugal: Strong seafaring tradition, weak domestic economy, frozen out of the Mediterranean trade

• Prince Henry the Navigator: Portuguese Prince who actively supported and encouraged exploration (School of Navigation, sharing of data, new charts)

1. Goal: find direct route to Asia

• Initial expansion into Africa brought conflict with traditional Muslim enemies
• Push South and develop first trading ports

1. Slaves and gold for manufactured goods

• Dias: First to reach the Cape of Good Hope
• Expeditions blown off course discover Brazil
• da Gama: First to cross the Indian Ocean, returned to Portugal loaded with spices (huge profit)

1. Opened a trade route which bypassed the Middle East

• Alfonso de Albuquerque: Admiral responsible for subduing Indian resistance to Port. outposts and ensuring cooperation in trade through a great naval victory

1. Portuguese goal was trading outposts, NOT colonization
2. To help establish outposts the Port. often took advantage of native rivalries

Results:

• By 16th Century the Portuguese controlled trade along both coasts of Africa, India and the Spice Islands
• Increased trade of Spices drove down price and profitability
• began to struggle to fund and support outposts (both in terms of $ and people)
• Port.
• European competitors will begin to challenge Portuguese hegemony in the late 16th Century and early 17th Century

Spain

Background: Spain united under the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand, giving them the power to expel the Muslims and rival Port. in exploration

Isabella: Sponsor of Columbus to find a route to the spice Islands.

• Discovered America “Mundus Novus” (New World)

Columbus’s voyages brought the Spanish and Portuguese into direct competition

• Treaty of Tordesillas:

Portugal: Eastern Trade Routes, Africa and Brazil

Spain: Everything west of Cape Verde (at the time completely unknown)
Islands

• Result: Spain became energized in their exploration of the new world

Spanish Exploration

Goals (three G’s): Missionary, extend national sovereignty, profit and personal glory

• Used Caribbean as a base for expansion and conquest

Islands
Explorers:

• Vasco Balboa: Panama and the Pacific Ocean
• Ferdinand Magellan: Circumnavigate the globe (kind of), 280 to 18, all told a rather bad trip

Conquistadores:

• Usually came for the lower ranks of society, or younger children with little hopes of significant inheritance (desperate men)
• Driven by greed and characterized by their ruthlessness
• New World mostly male, very crude society
• Establishment of haciendas (ranches / plantations)
• Class structure: Spanish born, Spanish born in new world, mixed, Native American

1. Tales of a Transvestite Lieutenant Nun

Impact: Destroyed native populations

• Wars of conquest
• Disease: Small Pox, Typhoid & Measles

1. Native Population went from 25 Million to 2 Million
2. Need for African slaves ↑

Results:

• Spanish immigration rose

1. Integration of the new worlds and Europe into a single market place

• Center of European finance shifted from Italy to the Dutch (Italian Wars)

1. Silver used to purchase Asian goods
2. Gold and Slaves came from Africa / silver from South America

Other motivations:

• Reformation drove Christians to new heights of missionary zeal (Jesuits)
• Personal Glory: Lusiads, by Luiz de Camoes illustrates a story of conquistador golry

Geographical Tour of Europe

• 16th Century: A time of expansion of monarchical power, often referred to as the rise of the “New Monarchs”

1. Diplomacy, marriage and warfare

• In 1500 Europe consisted of over 500 independent principalities

Eastern Europe:

• Mongols: Came from the steppes of Asia, conquered central and southern Russia

1. Created political units known are Khanates

• Ottoman Empire: Controlled all of Byzantine, Greece and the Balkan Peninsula
• Russia: Centered in Kiev and extended to Muscovy

1. edge of Europe – usually 50 to 100 years behind the rest of Europe, sometimes they are an integral part of Europe and sometimes not

Northern Europe:

• Scandinavian countries, ruled by a single king in the 15th Century

1. Demark – wealth center of trade

• Poland-Lithuania- Joint Crown (14th Cent.)

1. Jagiollon family hereditary monarchs (also Bohemia and Hungary)

Geography: Land less fertile than the west, climate more severe = lower population

• Agriculturally poor, major industries focused on Baltic fisheries, silver mines and Russian forests

Central Europe:

• Holy Roman Empire (HRE) largest population of all Europe

1. Collection of independent principalities, church lands and free towns

• Alps helped ensure independence
• Brandenburg, Bohemia, Bavaria, Austria, Swiss Confed.

1. Church was the glue that held the HRE together

2. Italy: See chapter 11

Geography: Good agricultural lands, good mineral deposits (iron ore) and large forests

• Central to early European industrial production
• Largest market in Europe

Western Europe:

• Iberian Peninsula: (Spain and Portugal)

1. Union of Aragon (Isabella) and Castile (Ferdinand) enabled Spain to drive out the Moors and Jews (1492) and become the preeminent power on the Iberian Peninsula

• France: (2nd largest population in Europe)

1. Richest agricultural lands in Europe, good climate

• British Isles:

1. Wales and Scotland independent (poor agricultural lands)
2. Ireland independent, good lands

This was a starting point for the rise of the New Monarchs, who centralized authority throughout Europe creating the basis of our first Nation States

The Formation of States: General

Monarchs had a different source of power than feudal kings:

• Broad tax base provided greater revenues

1. Kings were expected to live off their lands

• Professional government officials (Bureaucrats)

1. Reflected an increasing centralization of government administration

• Professional armies

1. Increasing importance as technology and tactics became more complicated

Challenges to the unification of the 500 independent principalities

• Difficult transportation
• Difficult and slow communication
• Various dialects and languages
• Varied inheritance patterns
• Fortified Towns
• Popular Assemblies would resist monarchial powers

1. England – Parliament
2. France – Estates General
3. Spain – Cortes
4. Germany – Imperial Diet

Unifying forces:

• Small size of the various principalities
• Nature of dynastic marriages to consolidate lands
• Primogeniture inheritance
• Technological advances

1. Canon / professional military weakened the effectiveness of permanent fortifications

The Formation of States: Eastern Configurations

Muscovy:

• Ivan III (“The Great”): Expanded Muscovite territory through diplomacy and War

Why?

• Decline of Mongols
• Ottoman expansion made Muscovy the headquarters of eastern Christianity
• Marriage to Sophia (niece of last Byzantine Emperor)

1. Brought Western influence to the court of Muscovy

• Created a privileged noble / military class
• Used church authority to control nobles

Ivan IV (“The Terrible”)

• Defeated Mongols for the last time
• Wanted a port on the Baltic Sea
• Series of wars against Poland-Lithuania

1. Allowed Crimean Tartars to sack and burn Moscow

• Created three social classes

1. Boyars: Hereditary nobility
2. Military Service Class
3. Peasantry

• Effectively destroyed the independence of the Boyars through murder and terror

1. Replaced them with loyal members of the military class

• Tied the peasants to the land (serfdom) to ensure stability of the military class

Impact:

• Destroyed all effective local government systems
• Established an effective system of central government in place of Boyars
• Implemented serfdom, when it was ending everywhere else in Europe
• Retarded the social, economic and political development of Russia

Poland – Lithuania

• Opposite of Muscovy
• Ever increasing decentralization of government in response to succession crisis
• Nobility became more powerful than the king, preventing the development of a “New Monarchy”

The Formation of States: Western Powers
England

Background:

• Norman invasion

1. Tightly organized Feudal system, most highly centralized government administration in Europe
2. History will be one of a slow rise of the nobility
3. End result: Constitutionalism / oligarchy of wealthy families

16th Century:

• No threat of foreign invasion (lack of unifying crisis)
• War of the Roses: Civil war over succession, Yorks v. Lancasters

1. Dynastic struggle that pulled in all of the noble families
2. Massive numbers of nobility killed
3. Eventually the House of Tudor won control of the crown at the Battle of Bosworth Field

Henry VII (First Tudor King)

• Faced two problems

1. How to control the nobility?
2. How to get enough money to rule?

• Solution: Use violence, diplomacy, bribery, centralization of government
• Financial Crisis:

1. Centralized management of royal lands and customs taxes to increase revenues
2. Henry VIII seized all church lands and sold them off

• Nobles:

1. Court of the Star Chamber (attack rival nobles)

• Thomas Cromwell (Chief Minister) organized government agencies and created the Privy Council to advise the king

1. Result: King can effectively manage Parliament

France

Background:

• When the last Carolingian King died, nobles selected Hugh Capet (Capetian Dynasty)

1. Weak, poor lands, controlled Paris
2. As Parisian revenues rose so to did the power of the monarchy

• History will be the slow rise of the monarchy over the nobility, culminating in the reign of Louis XIV

16th Century:

• Major challenge in France revolved around overly strong nobility and a cultural distrust of monarchical rule
• Louis XI “the spider king”

1. Cunning and vicious, goal was to increase king's power
2. Continuous warfare with England meant France was running out of nobles

• Louis claimed their lands, increased wealth

1. Gained control of Orleans through the marriage of his son
2. Louis began the process of centralization of government administration

New Taxes:

• Taille: property tax (peasantry / merchant class)
• Gabelle: Tax on salt
• Aide: tax on various commodities (meat, wine, ect.)

Impact:

• New broad base of taxes on the common people removed the king’s reliance on the nobility
• King able to raise a professional army to subdue nobility and defend French lands

Spain

Background:

• Spain was conquered by the Moors
• Remained fragmented with a large Moorish presence

16th Century:

• Ferdinand of Castile and Isabella of Aragon married

1. Created a political unity, cultural divide remained

• Reconquista: the expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula

1. Created a sense of national unity
2. Crisis used to centralize government administration

• Spanish Inquisition: Drove Jews and non-Christians out of Spain

1. Conversos – converted Jews, powerful in Spain, also attacked
2. Used terror to coerce confessions, public humiliation and burning at the stake
3. Crippled Spanish economy
4. Helped create a sense of national identity = “most catholic nation”

• Charles V – grandson of Ferdinand

1. Born and raised in Burgundy and the Low Countries
2. Developed a sense of national pride
3. Ushered in golden age of Spain
4. Failed to completely tie the nation together

The Dynastic Struggles
16th Century was a time of constant warfare

• Technology made warfare bloodier
• Valor was seen as an ideal trait of monarchs
• Wars connected to dynastic politics

1. New Monarchs wanted war, had the capability to make war and the money to make war
2. Availability of mercenary troops (Swiss and Germany)
3. Personality of New Monarchs

Italian Wars

• Charles VIII (Fr.) invited by Milan to help subdue their neighbors

1. Eventually expelled

• Charles & Ferdinand (Sp.) ally and invade

1. Fr. got nothing and Sp. got Naples

• Charles V – Hapsburg- (Sp.) and Francis I (Fr.) come to the thrown

• Maximilian I (HRE) died, Charles V had most valid claim to thrown and paid the most in bribes to the electors

1. Angered Francis I and Henry VIII (England)
2. Fr. and HRE compete for control of Milan (strategic importance - Burgundy)

• HRE allied with Henry VIII (Eng.) and crushed Fr.
• Fail to finish off France
• Pressure from Ottoman Empire and Protestants distracted Charles V

1. Treaty of Madrid

• Coerced treaty which Francis I immediately rejected

• France established new allies: England (mad at HRE), Italy and Ottomans against the HRE

1. Germany unable to decisively defeat the Ottomans
2. France unable to push the Germans out of Italy

Impact:

• Some people look at the dynastic wars of the 16th Century as the beginning of a balance of power international security concept
• European monarchies use the resources of the new world to conduct war against one another

1. They become good at warfare

• Battlefield technology developed which furthered aid in the conquest of the new worlds

1. Increased emphasis on national identity

Protestant Reformation Notes

Sola Scriptura: The “word alone”, battle cry of the reformation

Why did Luther succeed where Huss and Wycliff failed?

• Problems were facing the church:

1. Renaissance Popes were too worldly
2. Church officials were poorly educated
3. Priests were not following the rules (wives / worldly)
4. People developed higher standards

• educationally / socially

• Christian Humanists & leaders of the Northern Renaissance who focused on Religion presented new ideas.

1. Printing press (permissive cause)
2. In the north Italian Humanism was combined with tradition theology = Christian Humanism

Impact:

• Challenged the church education
• Established a new intellectual elite (16th Century)
• Use their ability to reexamine church doctrine, help people become better Christians

1. Erasmus

• Goal was to unite the individual Christian with textual basis of Christian doctrine

1. Attacked scholasticism, superstition and tradition to restore Christ to a central role in people’s lives

1. In Praise of Folly

• made fun of illiterate and innumerate people in society
• Priests get especially harsh treatment- illiterate

1. Thomas More - Utopia (“no place”)

• society based on reason / mercy (Plato’s Republic + Monastic life)

1. no greed, corruption, war or crime (abolished the 7 deadly sins)

• Goal was to instruct people to live a more Christian life
• A society founded on Christian principles would lead to a Christian life

Why did these writers have such a great effect over people’s ideas?
3. Invention of the Printing press

• 1455 movable type and paper emerged resulting in the first printing press.

1. in 50 years 9-10 million books were printed.
2. Bible is the first book printed by Johann Gutenburg

• Education increased
• Enabled government to increase uniformity of law
• Helped spread newly emerging scientific ideas
• Standardize language (Latin and Vernacular)
• Increased the value placed on the discovery of new ideas

Reformation:

• people form own ideas about religion
• new ideas spread more quickly
• people criticize the church more
• New economic pressure

1. Economic innovation of the Renaissance led people to become more independent in their daily lives
2. Fostered increasing resentment of the church tithes (and government taxes of the New Monarchs)
3. Wealth form the new world

5. Political conditions

• Feudal system had begun to give way towards a more nationalist worldview
• Kings / Princes will resent influence / interference of the church and rival political leaders

1. Reformation became a way to challenge political authority

• Pressure from Ottoman Empire prevented military oppression of Reformation

Result: The emergence of all these conditions at the same instant in time ‘permitted’ the reformation to occur.

Martin Luther Notes

Specific Problems:

Church

• Simony = buying and selling of church offices
• Nepotism = granting of church offices based on family relation
• Pluralism = holding several church offices at the same time
• Absenteeism = not showing up for work
• Relics = pilgrimages to worship holy relics (ie. a saints finger)

Catholic Doctrine:

• Salvation – faith and good deeds – sins must be atoned for by good works (prayer) or time in purgatory –
• Reservoir of good deeds from the lives of saints
• Church could bestow that grace upon anyone it in place of their time in purgatory
• Clergy was essential to help guide people to heaven

Transubstantiation
Martin Luther

• believed that salvation comes from “faith in god”

A monk named Tetzel was raising money by selling Letters of Indulgence (gave the purchaser the freedom from penance)

• Tetzel was leading the purchasers to believe that the Letter of Indulgence was freeing them from all responsibility for their actions.
• It looked like one could buy their way into heaven

As a response Luther wrote his 95 These (formal statements) and posted them on the door of the local church.

• the 95 Theses were copied and then printed and widely distributed.
• the ideas expressed in the 95 Theses include:
• Salvation by faith alone
• No need for sacraments
• Bible is the only authority
• Consubstantiation
• Challenged the concept of monastic life
• everyone has an equal relationship with god
• don’t need priests

Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther

• Luther is put on trial by Charles V at the Diet of Worms

Charles V declared Luther an outlaw

• Luther was supported by the German people

Luther’s Ideas spread:

• Translated Bible into German
• Followers of Luther became known as Lutherans

1. mass held in German language
2. no priests

• 3. Group of German Princes join Luther and protest against the pope

1. eventually became known as the Protestants
2. Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation
3. Scandinavia (Pol. / Econ.), East (Short lived), Swiss

Who supported Luther?

• 1. Princes

1. Deep religious convictions
2. Helped them centralize their control, kept tax money from going to Rome
3. Confiscate church lands (monastic)

• 2. Free Towns

1. Clearly separate church and civil powers
2. Allowed early MC to challenge the privileged orders
3. Urban priests embraced Protestantism, increased personal power

• 3. Women

1. Mainly noble women
2. Gave equal spiritual footing to women
3. Increased the emphasis on the family as the primary societal unit

Other factors:

Charles V not able to step on Lutherans:

• Political struggle between Pope Leo X and Charles
• Pressure from Ottoman Empire
• Conflict with France

Calvinism notes

2nd Generation of reformers: Institutional and Doctrinal issues

Switzerland becomes the home of two reform movements:

• Zwinglianism: Initiated by Zwingli (Priest 1523)

1. Characteristics:

• Abolish relics, images, pilgrimages and other traditions
• Abolish mass in favor of services
  

  Did not believe in consecration of Eucharist (symbolic only)

1. Abolish pope’s authority

1. Killed by plague (1531)

• Calvinism: Believed in salvation by faith and predestination

1. French, kicked out, war refugee, ended up in Geneva

• Wrote: Institutes of the Christian Religion
• Emphasized the absolute power of God

1. Don’t need structure of the Church, power rests with God
2. Salvation at the mercy of god

• Predestination meant that you were selected by god and should do God’s work on earth

1. Believed that they should spread their faith to others
2. Create govt. in Geneva

• Consistory would punish crimes

1. Dancing, singing, swearing
2. Elect should rule

• How do you know you are one of the elect?

1. Live right, wealth / success

• John Knox: Impressed with Calvinism and brought it to Scotland

1. Started Presbyterian faith

• Marian exiles brought Calvinism to England (puritans)

Henry VIII
1509 - Henry became King (18 years old)

• Devout Catholic

1. “Defender of the Faith”

Wife #1: Catherine of Aragon (Hapsburg), wife of Henry’s Bro.

• 1516 daughter: Mary
• 1527 Henry decided Catherine could not have a male child
• Needed male child to prevent civil war over succession (War of the Roses)
• Henry wanted a new wife, but could not get a divorce
• Henry asked the Pope to declare the marriage illegal

1. Pope Clement VII says nothing

• Charles V (Hapsburg) would not let the Clement end the marriage of his Aunt (Catherine of Aragon)
• Henry called together Parliament

1. Reformation Parliament:
2. Legalized Henry’s divorce
3. Declared Henry to be the leader of the church (not the Pope)

Wife #2: Anne Boleyn (1527)

• Daughter: Elizabeth
• 1534 Parliament approved the Act of Supremacy

1. Declared that the king was the head of the church of England

• Henry seized all church property and sold it to the nobles

1. If the Catholic Church returned to England then the nobles would lose this property

• 1536 still no male child, Anne Boleyn beheaded

Wife #3: Jane Seymour

• 1536 Edward was born (Jane dies in birth)

Wife #4: Ann of Cleves

• German princess who did not look like her portrait

Wife #5: Catherine Howard

• Committed adultery and was beheaded

Wife #6: Catherine Parr

• More of a nurse than a wife, out lives Henry

1. 1548 Henry died, Edward becames king at the age of 12

• Mary became queen after Edward’s death

1. Catholic - tried to restore the Catholic religion in England
2. Resulted in persecution of Protestants and the Marian Exiles

• Elizabeth I became queen, locked up Mary

1. Restored Protestantism to England
2. Had to deal with the return of radical Protestants and Catholics
3. 39 Articles created a compromise between the radicals and conservatives

• Temporary solution

Question in England:

• How protestant will the church be and what role should the government have?

Others:
Anabaptists: Adult Baptism, church only for the saved

• Seen as radical and attacked

Contrasting Protestant and Catholic Doctrine

Protestantism and the idea of progress

Question:

Was the Protestant Reformation responsible for the rise of liberal democracy and the industrial economy of Western Europe?

Is there a link between Protestant thought and democratic government, modern science, technology and culture?
Con:

• 16th Century Protestants were not the rationalists of the early industrial period.

1. Just as guilty of superstitious behavior as the Catholics

• Saw the point of life to get to heaven (like Catholics), as a result they did not emphasize the temporal world

• Early Protestants did not believe in separation of church and state

1. Protestant governments were models of intolerance

• Early Protestants were not democratic

1. Replaced the authority of the pope with classed / ranked order in society
2. Ex. Luther opposed the peasant revolt, Calvinist doctrine of Predestination

Pro:

• Values of early Protestants coincided with the values necessary for the development of a commercial revolution

1. Protestant values strengthened the commercial and industrial middle classes

• Rejection of usury on loans
• Women more economically accepted
• Increased literacy rates in the population

Result: The reformation created a new social, political and economic way of life in which the emerging middle class could prosper and grow.

Max Weber:

Calvinist thought promoted a life style best adapted to the production and accumulation of wealth in early modern European history.

• Wealth accumulation requires short term sacrifice and reinvestment.

1. Protestants emphasized self sacrifice

• Elimination of saint’s festivals and reinforcement of Sabbath emphasized the concept of a six day work week
• Emphasized work as a way of avoiding sinning
• Rejection of usury law, provided capital for investment

1. Accumulation of wealth became a sign of living a ‘good life’

Counterview:

• Western Europe developed not because of the culture of Protestantism, but rather their geographical advantages (coal, iron)

Impact on nationalism / rationalism:

• In some areas (dominated by one religion), religion influenced the development of patriotism / nationalist feelings.
• Both Protestantism and Catholicism behave in ways which supported emerging capitalism, and yet were both reactionary (witches).
• Historical discussion has shifted towards trying to understand the relationship between political and religious experiences of early modern European people.

The Crisis of Western States

AP European History

Mr.  Moravek

Peace of Augsburg:  established the local authorities responsibility to select the religion of the area, one faith one king

• Created confusion as princes converted back and forth
• Left no room for moderates

1. Both sides philosophical outlook was absolute
2. Left no room for moderates, attacked by both sides

• Extremists dominated European politics

1550-1650 time of internal and external conflict throughout Europe

French Wars of Religion

• Civil War, particularly destructive to the development of the nation

Background:

• As a result of Reformation France had a Catholic Monarchy, but a divided population between Calvinists and Catholics

1. Both beliefs became highly MILITANT
2. Protestants led by the Bourbons (Henry of Navarre)
3. Catholics led by the Guise

Huguenots:  French Calvinists who were persecuted

• Came from all levels of society
• Mostly tradesmen and artisans, nobility (40-50%) including the Bourbon line (related to kings)
• Made them a powerful political threat, despite representing 7% of population
• Centered in growing towns and cities which also represent a challenge to growth of Monarchical power

Opposed by Catholic Monarch and rise of “Ultra-Catholic” party

• Ultra-Catholics get support from pope and Jesuits

French Monarchy:

• King Henry II died (Jousting)
• Francis II became king

1. House of Guise became influential
2. Sought to persecute Henry of Navarre

• Charles IX (Catherine de Medicis was Regent)

1. Guise eliminated Protestant influence at Court and began to attack protestant areas
2. Protestants fought a defensive war
3. War worsened with the assassination of duc de Guise

• Both sides brought in mercenary help (Spain, Swiss)

1. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

• Guise used arraigned marriage of Henry of Navarre as an opportunity to kill the entire protestant leadership

• Impacts:

1. Deepened hatred and divisions
2. Prolonged the civil war
3. Medici blamed, monarchy seen as on the Catholic side

Theory of Resistance:  Lawful to resist a monarchy acting in an unlawful manner

• Protestants
• Politiques:  Catholics who joined w/ protestants as a protest against the massacre

1. Catholic League:  Collection of Catholic towns that opposed Protestantism
2. War of the Three Henry's:  King Henry III, Henry Guise & Henry of Navarre
3. King Henry III could not control the Ultra-Catholics

1. Assassinated Henry Guise and his Brother
2. Henry III driven out of Paris by the Ultra-Catholics

1. King Henry III and Henry of Navarre made a pact to defeat the Ultra-Catholics
2. Henry III was assassinated by a priest
3. Henry of Navarre became king (Henry IV 1594)

• Drove out the Spanish, united France
• "Paris is worth a Mass"
• Edict of Nantes:  religious freedom, right to fortify cities

1. Extremists continued to fight, Henry IV eventually assassinated

• Restored the place of the monarchy and unity of the French

Spain and Philip II

Charles V of Germany retired:

• Left German Empire to Fredrick I
• Left Spanish Empire to Phillip II
• Mid 16th Century Spain was the greatest social and econ. Power of Europe

1. Spain, Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Portugal and New World
2. Great Naval power (Sp. + Port.)

Phillip II:  Militant Catholic, great administrator of government

Spain under Phillip II:

• very wealthy (gold / silver from New World)
• very Catholic (used force and cruelty)
• very strong control of nobles
• Netherlands were predominately Protestant (problem)
• Phillip II was also engaged to Mary Tudor

Problems facing Phillip and Spain:

• Wealth was based on money, not production
• Catholicism brought them into foreign wars with the Ottomans, Netherlands and English
• The rest of Europe saw Spain as a threat
• Rebellion in Netherlands over taxation and religion

Philip:

• Great Administrative mind:  "King of Paper"
• Stood against Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean Sea

1. Battle of Lepanto:  Coast of Greece, defeated Ottoman Navy (decisive victory)

• Devout Catholic

1. Inquisition
2. Involvement in the French Wars of Religion
3. Marriage to Mary Tudor

• Rivalry w/ England

1. Religious
2. Personal (Elizabeth said no)
3. Economic:  English "Sea Dogs" (Francis Drake)
4. Military:  Netherlands and France (keep others fighting, stay out of conflict)
5. Spanish Armada 1588, bad plan

• Turning point, people did not know it

Results:

• Spain’s heyday as a continental power was over
• England ensured that it would remain protestant
• England prepared to become a world power
• Dutch emerge as an independent group and a commercial center of Europe

• Netherlands revolted

1. 17 independent provinces
2. Manufacturing / banking center of Europe
3. General discontent galvanized around rel. differences
4. Spanish rel. policy violated the Peace of Augsburg

• Protestants resented Spanish rule
• Margaret of Parma regent (Philip II's 1/2 sister)
• Calvinists go of Iconoclasm rampage

1. Put down by Margaret and Protestants alike
2. Philip II still sent troops
3. Duke of Alba

• Massacred protestants, deepened divisions and hatred

1. Open revolt
2. William of Orange key figure in resistance
3. Spanish army mutinied:  "Spanish Fury" at Antwerp

• Pacification of Ghent 1576
• 12 Years Truce:  ended conflict and established a free / antagonistic  Dutch State

Struggles in Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe and the Reformation:

• Muscovy:  no reformation, remained Eastern Orthodox Christian
• Poland-Lithuania:  Protestantism crept in, but tolerated
• Will fight as much as the west, difference was that their wars were dynastic

Poland-Lithuania

• 16th Century:  Poland was the preeminent power in Eastern Europe

1. Death of the last Jagiellion monarch threw more power to nobles
2. Polish Diet:  Parliamentary body
3. Sigismund (Swedish) became new king, Diet limited his power

• Engaged in a series of dynastic wars

Time of Troubles:

• Began with the death of Ivan the Terrible (killed his son)

1. Civil War, Boyars refused to acknowledge a strong Tsar

• Attacked by Poland-Lithuania and Sweden

1. Sigismund captured Moscow and sought to make himself Tsar
2. Boyars agreed on Michael Romanov as Tsar, repel invaders

• Began the Romanov dynasty

Rise of Sweden:

• Gustav I Vasa led the independence movement
• Charles IX next monarch, defended the Swedes from Sigismund claim to the thrown
• Danish King Christian IV invaded Sweden, force unfavorable treaty upon Swedes

1. Develop alliances with England and Dutch

• Gustavus Adolphus:  Raised to be king, very good military tactician

1. Reorganized the military (squadrons and regiments), increased training
2. Emphasized mobility in military
3. Best military of the day
4. Married into Prussian nobility
5. Expanded Swedish control over Baltic trade

30 Years War:

• Europe was waiting for a major war to break out
• Tensions b/w Dutch & Spanish, Spanish and French, German Catholics and German Protestants, England and Spanish, Swedish and everyone in the Baltic Region
• 30 Years War fought in the HRE by everyone in Europe
• Spark that started the war:  German succession

1. Electors:  3 C, 3 P, one the emperor (as King of Bohemia)
2. Kingship of Bohemia would determine the religion of the next HRE

• Bohemian Revolt:
• Mathias (HRE) appointed his cousin Ferdinand as King of Bohemia (ensure next HRE a C)

1. Ferdinand (Hapsburg) violated the rights of the protestants
2. March on the royal palace in Prague

• Defenestration of Prague
• Began open revolt against Ferdinand

• Mathias died, Ferdinand became Ferdinand II (HRE)
• Fredrick V (P) claimed the crown of Bohemia
• Fredrick V also controlled the Palatinate, strategically important link b/w Spanish lands in Italy and the Netherlands
• War broke out

1. Catholic v. Protestant (Everyone participated)
2. Battle of White Mountain

• Catholics under Albrecht von Wallenstein crush the Protestants

1. Ferdinand confiscated Fredrick’s lands and cruelly persecuted the Protestants

Problem:  Hapsburgs had become too powerful, posed a threat to Protestantism and the free Dutch state

• Philip  III + Ferdinand = loss of balance of power
• Hapsburgs pressed their advantage, Philip III declared war on Dutch

1. England, Holland, German Protestants, Danish (Christian IV) respond
2. von Wallenstein won again

• Ferdinand pressed his luck, tried to eliminate Protestantism

1. United Lutheran and Calvinist opposition
2. Swedes join the battle / France helped pay for war
3. Catholic sack Magdeburg

• Protestant forces grew under the command of Gustavus

1. Protestants began to win
2. Eventually were worn down (could not replace losses as easily)

France v. Spain

• Fr. under the leadership of Cardinal Richelieu (Louis XIII) declared war on Spain
• Fought in the Netherlands, signaled a shift in the war political v. Religious
• Destructive war in which Spain eventually went bankrupt and forced to settle for peace

Peace of Westphalia

• European powers lost their will to fight, the war was incredibly destructive
• Restored the Peace of Augsburg
• Settled various wars and conflicts through a series of agreements

Impacts:

• War left HRE divided and economically ruined

1. Unification will be delayed

• Emergence of Politics over religion in foreign affairs

1. France helped the protestants

• End of massive religious wars

1. Europe was worn out, 30 Y.W. was extremely destructive

Economic Life

• Class dictated culture more than country or geography

1. Nobles from across Europe had more in common with each other than with    peasants on their own manors

• Trends:

1. Increase in agricultural production - more land brought into cultivation and      cleared
2. Increase in population
3. Increase in commodity prices

Rural Life in the 16th Century:

• 90% of the people lived on farms and small villages

1. Social organization revolved around three factors:  Manor, Parish and rural      administration

• Cost peasants up to 50% of their income
• Bad harvests presented a constant threat

• Household:  family unit (home)

1. Life centered on the hearth
2. Few possessions:  wooden chest, few clothes, straw bed, table + chairs (luxury)
3. Rarely traveled outside village

• Agriculture:

1. Northern Europe:  3 field system - winter wheat / rye, spring barley, peas,   beans 
2. Mediterranean World:  2 field rotation, olives and grapes supplemented income
3. Mountains:  Animal husbandry - sheep (mountains), pigs (woodlands), cattle (farms)
4. Impact:  agriculture was the main profession, land was the principle       resource

• Lords owned land - rented it
• Western Europe peasants owned a greater percentage of land
• Feudal contracts dominated social / econ. Relationship
• Fields were planted / harvested communally

• Town Life

1. Guilds dominated social / econ. Life

• set standards for training, labor conditions, wages and quality standards

1. Towns were interdependent upon one another and the countryside
2. 25% poverty rate, general welfare better than the countryside
3. Larger the town the greater the specialization of labor

• Economic Change:

1. Population explosion between 1550 and 1650
2. At first an increase in agricultural production (increased land in production)

• Cycle of growth resulted in surplus labor and commodities for urban growth
• Eventually population outgrew production (new farm land tended to be less productive)

1. Population increases caused problems in cities

• Increased poverty, crime, lower wages

Price Revolution:

• Between 1500 and 1650 cereal prices increased 5 to 6 times, manufactured goods 2 to 3 times

1. Causes:

• Population increase
• Increase in precocious metals (new world)
• War and increased state deficits led to debasement of currency
• Highly susceptible to inflationary problems

1. long term rents (99 years), rights to purchase products at fixed prices

Result:  "social dislocation"

• Towns:  manufactured goods inflated slower - loss of purchasing power
• Landowners:  income tied to rent, fixed rent meant a loss of purchasing power

1. Payment in kind rents, became wealthier

• Peasants:  largely insulated, rarely participated in economic exchange

1. Greater incentive to produce surplus crops - greater specialization
2. increased unequal distribution of wealth among the peasantry

• Urban workers:  hardest hit, many became migrant laborers

IMPACT:  new understanding of wealth:

• People used to see land / tenants as wealth (asset), shift to liquid assets as a   sign of wealth

Social Life:

• Basic assumption:  inequality, hierarchy and stratification

1. The group was the basic pattern of organization rather than the individual

• Hierarchy was the basic organizational form of society:

1. Wealth was a poor indicator of position (rise of the new rich)
2. STATUS was the key:  conferred privileges and responsibilities, reflected everywhere as publicly as possible
3. The Great Chain of Being:  universe was a chain, everything has its place from God all the way down to rocks (implied hierarchy and interdependence, precluded social mobility)

• All life connected and interdependent

• Body Politic:  Metaphor that saw the state as a body (implied hierarchy and interdependence, precluded social mobility)

1. Head = rulers
2. Arms = protectors
3. Stomach = nourished
4. Feet = labor
5. Soul = church
6. Hands = crafts

Social Classes

• Nobles:  legal rank that carried privileges and obligations

1. Prince, duke, earl, count, baron
2. Political order:  held govt. positions
3. Economic order:  exempted from most taxation
4. Obligations:  ran local areas

• Town elite / Gentry

1. As wealth increased so to did power - devised their own system of status

• Wealthy farmers who acquired their own tenants, began to act as if they were nobles

1. Rise of the Gentry created a rift in society b/w old money and new money

• Nobility of the Robe:  conferred status
• Nobility of the sword:  hereditary status

• New Rich:  expanding wealth and population created a demand for an increased ruling class (result of the Price Revolution)
• New Poor:  more of them and greater dislocation of the poor (result of the Price Revolution)

1. Traditional poor:  "deserving poor" were cared for by the community in which they lived (church primary actor)

• Problem:  more poor than could be supported, led to migrant labor
• As destitute migrated they lost their rights to alms
• Crime rate increased with poverty, dislocated poor were blamed and targeted for retribution
• Society became increasingly reactionary

• Peasant Revolts:

1. Organized petitions in response to perceived changes in their rights / obligations

• Met tremendous opposition
• Agrarian changes led to the revolts

1. Expansion of agricultural practices

• Enclosures:  fenced off sections, removed decision making fromcommunal agriculture

1. Gave greater freedom to wealthy landowners
2. Hurt the small farmer
3. Seen as an "effect not a cause"

• Ket's Rebellion (England) was in response to enclosures

1. Similar uprisings occurred across Europe

1. German Peasants' War - a series of uprisings

• Agrarian and religious in their motivation
• Twelve Articles of the Peasants of Swabia (1525)

• List of demands:  Marriage, freedom of movement, elimination of death taxes, stable rents, limit on labor service

• Crushed by the German nobility

Private Life

Life was in a state of change:  new worlds, centralization of state, war and religious reform

The Family:

• Primary kin group
• Nuclear:  married couple w/ children

1. Extended family more common in Eastern Europe (taxes based on household)

• Linage determined one's status

1. Provided stability and predictability to society

• Social organization provided discipline / hierarchy that society was based on

Gender roles

• Women experienced as many pregnancies as possible, often dictated gender roles

1. Dominated work in the household
2. Roles changed over lifetime
3. Work was conducted within the household - private life

• Men worked in public and were seen as the leadership within the household

1. Work often focused on heavy labor

Local Communities:

• Guided by lords (acted as administrators of justice) and priests (conduits of communication)

Weddings:

• Public events which served as a rite of passage into the adult community
• Property was exchanged and status was conferred (maintained a stable society)

Popular beliefs:

• Preliterate society, very superstitious
• Magical practices were still accepted

1. Magicians:  herbs & plants focused on diseases
2. Alchemists:  rocks, minerals - precursor to experimental science
3. Astrologers:  studied the stars to predict the future
4. Witches:  animals

Social Disorders:

• Skimmingtons / Charivari:  shaming ritual to ensure traditional gender roles

1. Aimed at women who challenged traditional gender hierarchy
2. Became increasingly common as economic pressure increased

• Witchcraft craze

1. Witchcraft = use of magic for evil
2. 1550-1650 30,000 victims (80% women)
3. Why single women?

• Fringes of society
• Often sold herbs as a means of income
• No male protector
• Traditional bias (religion)

Theory of the Monarchy

Theory of the Monarchy:

• In theory all nobles were equal, but in practice they were divided by office and wealth

King:  “1st Noble”

• Source of Kings authority was representing the nobility

1. Nobility never disobeyed a direct order, may at times subvert orders

Royal Family:  “Princes of the Blood”

• Direct relatives of the king were the next highest nobles in practice

Great Nobles:  had titles (Duke, Earl, Count, Etc.) and wealth

• Held cast lands and amassed great wealth
• Typically lived at or visit court for extended periods of time
• Usually had direct access to the king

1. Importance of wealth

Middle Nobility:  Had enough money to visit court but could not stay

• Lived in the countryside
• Connected the upper nobility and the people

Lower Nobility:  Had enough money so that they did not labor directly

• Could not afford to visit court, relied on Great Nobles
• Served to connect upper nobility to the people

• Nobles increased their wealth (thus power) through Royal Offices and Pensions

1. Meant that they needed contact with the King
2. Must go to court

16th Century Government

• Very weak relative to contemporary standards

1. No ability to enforce policy

• No police or significant bureaucracy

• Key to government power was the ability of the govt. (King) to influence the nobles through a sense of personal persuasion
• Moral Authority to lead

1. The greater a king’s Moral Authority the more difficult to resist

• In the purest form kings will make themselves out to be a sacred element of govt.

Keys to Moral Authority:

1.  Effective “Public Display”

• Purpose: to show that the king’s will was that of the people and must be followed
• Image was everything
• Used quasi-religious rituals and ceremonies to demonstrate Moral Authority
• Goal was to establish a sense of “deference” to illustrate a king’s right to lead
• Kings used Royal Offices and Pensions as an enticement
• Result:  King became seen as a divine figure

Ex.  Louis XIV made himself into a sacred object to increase his Moral Authority

2.  “Mystery of the State”:  Ruling became a “cult” of knowledge not shared among the nobility or people

• “State Secrets” were closely guarded
• Develop the idea that only the king could make key decisions, thus no one should question him
• Knowledge was power

3.  “Reason of the State”:  Kings were to act in best interests of the state for reasons known only to themselves (connects w/ “Mystery of the State”)

• Others may not / could not understand the higher purpose

4.  Law:  An expression of the Kings will

• Justice was the kings will, thus Kings not subject to Justice
• All justice was performed in the King’s name

Overall Result:  Concept of the State was tied directly to that of the King

• Created a tension between Kings and the State (Nobles)

French Absolutism:

Response to growing social, political and economic crisis / change:

Absolutism:  Ultimate authority rests w/ monarchy through Divine Right

• Note Arbitrary govt. was hated, govt. not subject to any control / law

How to extend state power:

1.  Extension of the Legal System:  Sacred right of kings

• Kings implemented officials to enforce justice

1. usurp power of hereditary monarchy (Nobles of the Robe)

2.  War

• Armies increasingly became the province of the government
• Forced states to reform taxation

3.  Taxation

• Money meant power, had to establish the RIGHT to taxation
• Fr.  Paulette, tax on office holding
• Sp. Millions, tax on consumption (meat, wine, oil)
• Eng.  Customs duties

Impact:

Conflict between the states right to taxation and the nobles view of taxation as arbitrary government (theft) - Fronde was an example

King's Court:

• Where decisions were made
• Dominated by the king and their "favorites"

1. Fr.  Cardinal Richelieu
2. Sp.  Count-Duke Olivares
3. Eng.  Duke of Buckingham

• Court favorites had to balance favor of the king with hatred from their peers

1. Often times the subjects of conspiracy and assassination
2. "fall guy" of the regime

France:

Louis XIII:  became king as a boy

• Cardinal Richelieu ruled for him, two goals:
• Strengthen Monarchy     
• Strengthen France

1. Tried to weaken Huguenots independence (revokes Edit of Nantes)
2. Tried to weaken Nobility
3. Control local government officials
4. Sided with Protestants in 30 Years War
5. Very much a Hobbesian view

Louis XIV:  became king as a boy

• Cardinal Mazarin ruled for him, same goals as Richelieu

1. Fronde (Nobles revolt in Paris- Richelieu)
2. Crushed early revolt by the nobility

• 1661 Louis Ruled for himself (Surprised everyone)
• Used central policy making to control all of France
• Relied upon on intendants to enforce policy instead of nobles
• Controlled nobles by making them dependent on king for appointments to public office

1. Required them to come to court (Versailles)

Jean Baptiste Colbert:  Finance Minister under Louis XIV

• Mercantilism:  Wealth tied to accumulation of gold / silver through favorable balance of trade
• Import raw materials, export finished products to achieve a Favorable Balance of Trade
• Protect industry with Tariffs and subsidies
• Develop colonies for source of raw material and markets
• Build infrastructure for trade

Marquis de Louvois (Minister of War) used $ to build a massive standing army

• Reorganized and built the largest army in all of Europe
• Increased Louis's control over the nobles

Versailles:  Louis XIV hunting lodge turned into a palace and center of the royal court

• Great "display" of Royal power / authority
• Louis XIV as "Sun King"

1. Became a symbol of Louis XIV’s power and strength of the monarchy
2. Center of French government
3. Place of prominence for nobility (everyone wanted to be there, to get a good job from the king)

• Nobles became too busy with the hierarchy of Versailles to get involved in politics, leaving Louis total control
• Complex set of etiquette
• Expensive to live there
• Gambling problems of the Nobility

Problems / mistakes:

• Foreign wars bankrupted the French monarchy while achieving little
• Persecution of Huguenots (Revoked Edict of Nantes in 1685)

1. Commercially inclined Huguenots emigrated to the Netherlands

Impacts:

• France became the leading European Nation
• French language became an "international" language
• France became a commercial powerhouse of Europe

1. Fought many wars both successful and unsuccessful

• Further weakened Spain
• Left France in economically weak position from wars

Crisis of the Royal State

Growth of Royal Government resulted in a Backlash

• Church, Towns and Nobles
• Why?

1. Taxation
2. More Laws
3. Declining harvests throughout the 17th Century

Need to resist:

• General population decline signaled difficult times

1. Bad harvests
2. War (indirect effects: disruption of agriculture / trade & disease)
3. Govt. raised taxes, people didn’t have the money

• Peasants hit hardest, along with nobles dependent upon rents for income

Resistance:

• Grain riots:  largely peasant revolts, localized and ineffective, unless local authorities joined
• Bread riots:  urban riots led by women over the price of bread
• Riots:  a form of political expression

Resistance Theory:

• Luther and Calvin:  Authority to rule tied to god, lower magistrates had authority to revolt
• French Wars of Religion

1. Mornay:  A Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants

• Nobles had the right to rebel

1. Mariana:  The King and the Education of the King

• Commoners had the same religious duty as nobility to revolt against an ungodly king

1. Milton:  The Tenure of Kings

• Society formed by a convent b/w king and people, one side broke the convent so could the other

Examples of Rebellion

• Spain:  Catalonia rebelled over taxation and extension of kingly power

1. Weakened Spanish monarchy, pulled the French into Spanish politics

• France:  Fronde.  Parisian revolt of traditional nobility, office holders and land owners

1. Mazarin and Anne of Austria (Louis XIV’s regent) taxed all of the above groups and    they rebelled
2. Began a tradition of revolt by the Parlement of Paris

• English Civil War

English Civil War:

Elizabeth I:  Henry VIII’s daughter, image was astoundingly popular among the people

• Left English treasury empty
• Paid bills by selling off Royal Lands (seized from the Catholic Church)

Chronology of Stuart Kings:

• James I
• Charles I
• Charles II
• James II

James I:  Elizabeth’s cousin from Scotland, began the Stuart Monarchy

• King of two countries (Scotland and England)
• Religious divide in England (Episcopal and Puritan)
• Ireland unsettled (conquered under Elizabeth), began colonization of protestants to subdue the Irish (has not worked well)
• Generally not popular in either Scotland or England

Charles I:

• Just as generally unpopular as James I

Two Problems:

• Elevated William Laud to archbishop of Canterbury

1. Religious reforms provoked Scottish rebellion

• Tried to collect taxes without consent of Parliament

1640:

• Charles called parliament to raise taxes to put down Scottish rebellion

1. Parliament refused
2. Charles disbanded them
3. “Short Parliament”

• Charles called a second parliament:  “Long Parliament”

1. To get money Charles agreed to not disband current Parliament and to call parliament on a triennial basis
2. Henrietta Maria convinced Charles to eliminate Parliamentary leadership         

• “Five Members incident”

1. Disagreements became more radical
2. Charles forced to leave London, goes to York

• Both sides began to raise troops

Civil War:

• Charles forces won at first
• Parliament made a deal with the Scottish – Covenant

1. Began to press Charles

• 1644 Scots and Parliament fight over religion and Charles once again gained the advantage
• New Model Army

1. Rise of Oliver Cromwell, increased discipline and promoted on merit
2. Crush Royalist forces by 1646

• Charles was captured and ransomed by the Scots, then kidnapped by the New Model Army

1. Parliament tried to negotiate a peace with Charles I, he refused to compromise
2. Charles tried to ally with the Scots
3. New Model Army crushed the Scots

• New Model Army tried Charles I for Treason and sentenced him to death

1. Parliament began to show signs of unreliability (refused to convict king)
2. “Prides Purge” led to the Rump Parliament (only N.M.A. supporters)

• Convict king, why?

• Parliament dominated by Cromwell – create the Commonwealth

1. Parliament not following Cromwell, 2nd purge – “Barebones Parliament”
2. Eventually eliminated the “Barebones Parliament”

• Cromwell declared himself “Lord Protector”

1. “Instrument of Govt” – Lord Protector and Council of State

• Cromwell’s death – Richard took over (son)

1. Failed to have the charisma to lead

• Army took over and restored the Stuart Monarchy to provide stability

Sequence of Events:

• Reform Monarchy
• Monarchy denied reform
• Radicalization
• Dictatorship
• Power vacuum
• Return to the beginning

Charles II became king

• Largely a powerless king
• Take away king’s power of secrecy

1. Weakened moral authority

James II (brother) succeed Charles II

• Elderly and childless, English will tolerate him
• Attempted to restore the power of the monarchy
• Catholic, hired Catholic ministers
• Had a son, attempted to create a Catholic dynasty

Glorious Revolution

• Parliament feed up with James II
• Negotiate a take over with William and Mary (James’s daughter) of Orange

1. Protestant

• Accept the Declaration of Rights (ensured Parliamentary meetings) and        Toleration Act (religious freedom) 1689
• Basis for a Constitutional Monarchy

• Locke provided the intellectual basis for the English Revolution

Prussia

Fredrick William built a large standing army to protect Prussia

• Military became the basis for Prussian unification under Fredrick William’s son, who became King Fredrick I
• Prussian Monarchy controlled the nobility through inclusion in the military

Result:  Prussia became a high centralized and militaristic state

Austria

Hapsburgs defeated in 30 Years War, but they drove the Turks back in 1687 and expanded eastward

• Austrian Empire included:  Czech, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia and Slovenia

Result:  Austrian Empire included a multitude of nationalities making effective centralization difficult

Peter the Great

Peter became Tsar in late 17th century
Determined to westernize Russia in order to MAKE RUSSIA INTO A GREAT STATE AND MILITARY POWER         

• Borrowed technology in an attempt to increase power of military
• Reorganized the Army (standing army of over 300,000) created first navy
• Divided Russia into provinces to better enforce central policy

1. Used force to control bureaucrats, but still wanted them to use free will

• Tried to institute a form of Mercantilism, but it was ineffective

1. Relied on raising taxes to increase revenue

• Gained total control of the Russian Orthodox Church
• Tried to implement Western Cultural practices in Russia

1. Shaving, short coats, etiquette
2. Women moved into a more public role

• To increase trade Peter needed a warm water port

1. Fought Sweden and eventually built St. Petersburg

Reforms help and hurt the Russian people:

• Powerful military – very expensive
• Westernized culture – only wealthy class (coats, beards, dentistry)
• Used of force – leads to distrusted of Tsar

17th Century development of modern science and physics

• Scientific Revolution was the profound change of the 17th Century

1. Europeans began to challenge classical thought
2. Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution

• Materialistic:  all matter made up of the same material

1. subject to the same laws

• Mathematical:  use calculation to replace common sense

1. measurable, repeatable phenomena

1. People began to understand the mathematical nature of the universe

• Science boils down to the mathematical relationship

1. Development of scientific institutions began

• Labs, universities, journals, language, careers

Scientific Revolution = social organizations + scientific understanding

Science as a social institution:

• Early science was restricted to the relatively small number of universities and as a “hobby” of the wealthy (leisure activity)

1. ie.  University and Alchemy

of Padua

• Patronage system:

1. Early scientists relied heavily upon wealthy patrons to support their work

• Patrons ultimately decide direction of early science

1. Development of a strict system of social hierarchy and deference in the early   scientific community
2. Legitimacy depended on the acceptance of the community (lack of math)

• At first the concepts of cooperation and collaboration completely foreign

1. Disagreements of science almost always became personal

Social Institutions:

Universities

Curriculums

• Arts:  equivalent to high school ed

1. Trivium:  grammar, rhetoric and dialelic (logic)
2. Quadrivium:  arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music (all math based)

• lightly regarded, until the introduction of algebra (precursor to psychics)
• Algebra intro. In the 13th Century

• Theology:  Main reason for the founding of universities

1. heart of universities

• Law:  Canon
• Medicine:  purely theoretical in nature

1. physical science was only a "sideline"
2. Anatomy was introduced in the 16th Century
3. Chemistry and pharmacology was rejected by most universities, debate centered on the acceptance of the scientific methodology

Summation:  Universities were poorly equipped to train scientists

• Universities provided a space for the Scientific Revolution to begin but not grow and develop.  Scientist training turns to academies and other social institutions

Academies:

Academy:  "clubs for people who wanted to live in the ancient world"

• began as classists who developed a curiosity about the ancient world
• Began to collect antiquities, interests continued to grow and develop into a curiosity about their world
• Accept the use of technology to understand their world

1. Develop into collections of PEOPLE who share the value of ideas and a questioning of their world
2. These people were truly bizarre and strange individuals who enjoyed being    different (Newton)

Academies solved practical problems of their world:

• Funding
• Reputation:  seal of approval from the group to ensure that you were a legitimate scientist
• Review:  Quality control on experiments, data and theorization
• Communication of data, theories and ideas

1. proceedings (published journals) and correspondence (secretary) spread findings and ideas
2. Provided the crucial link between scientists

Impact of Academies:

• development of civil discourse among scientists
• Communication / networking of scientific discovery
• Secretary was a key leader of academies
• Academy press

Alchemy:

• bizarre attempt at changing base metals into gold
• important because they were the first to emphasize experimentation and technology

Basis of the Scientific Revolution:

• Conflicting classical sources
• Examination / focus of Renaissance artists on nature
• Development of technical skills
• Use of mathematics to understand nature

Forces influencing science

• Aristotelian Philosophy:  provided a starting point

1. Matter made of four elements (earth, wind, water and fire)

• Neo-Platonism:  revival of Platonic philosophy

1. emphasis on mathematics

• Mystical / alchemy:  metaphysical (spiritual / moral) explanation of the world

1. Hermeticism: all objects share a universal spirit that would be spontaneously revealed
2. Paracelsus:  doctor / alchemist who believed that disease could be diagnosed and treated with ingested medicine

• Natural Philosophy:  attempt to explain the natural world

Nicholas Copernicus:  First to challenge Geocentric theory of the universe (polish)

• Wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

1. Universe is Heliocentric (sun is center)
2. Offered the simplest explanation
3. Challenged traditional Aristotelian philosophy

• Avoided persecution through death
•   

Tyhco Brahe

• discovered a nova and comet (challenged Aristotelian paradigm)

Johannes Kepler:  Supports Heliocentric and states that revolutions are elliptical (German)

• Develops a mathematical formula as proof

Galileo Galilei:  Asserted that planets are made of roughly same material as the Earth

• Wrote the Starry Messenger (1610)
• A Dialog Between the Two Great Systems of the World (1663)
• Challenged biblical view of the heavens

1. Tried and found guilty of Heresy, house arrest
2. Breakdown of his patronage system?

Francis Bacon:  codification of the Scientific Method (inductive empirical     experimentalism)

• The Advancement of Learning (1605)

Robert Boyle:  supported atomic view of matter - chemistry

• Boyle's Law:  relationship between pressure and gas
• Promoted the use to experimental technology

Andreas Vesalius:

• Galen (Classical source) established classical beliefs regarding anatomy and physiology.
• More accurate anatomical sketches

William Harvey:

• Blood circulates throughout the body in a continuous loop
• Previously believed that there were two circulation systems
• Heart as a pump

Descartes:  Discourse on Method (1637)

• Jesuit education

1. Schooled in Aristotelian philosophy
2. Disagreed with the basis of Aristotelian philosophy

• Embraced Skepticism (people who use doubt as the basis of knowledge)

1. Rejected absolute construct of knowledge, knowledge based on probability
2. Constructed knowledge based on doubt

• Mathematician: invented coordinate geometry (combined algebra and geometry)
• Used "proofs" to support philosophical learning

1. Could only accept that which you could prove
2. "I think, therefore I am"

• Cartesian dualism:  Mind and matter are separate, so to is the physical world from intellectual constructs (basis for science)

          
Example:  Ontological proof of god:

• One could only accept God if you could prove it exists
• Descartes knew that he was not perfect
• Only a perfect individual could place that concept in ones mind
• Therefore perfection must exist
• What is perfection, existence without limits = God

• proof for god based upon doubt, if you doubt it then it must exist at some level

1. Contrast it to Aristotelian proof:  Causality

• presented deductive reasoning as the base of knowledge
• believed that humans could more completely understand their world by using abstract principles
• Believed in that nature operated based on a Mechanical set of laws

Newton:

• Used experimental philosophy = physics
• Start with the natural world and then try to explain it

1. Natural philosophy began with an idea and applied it to nature

• Used math to create models based on nature

1. used formulas
2. Expressed observations in numeric language

• Math was a precise language that allowed for replication, collaboration and the creation of new knowledge

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)

Three laws which proved gravity

Gravity:

• Law of motion:  every object is at rest or motion and continues until some force affects the object
• Rate of change of motion is in proportion to the force which affects the object
• To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction

The expansion of knowledge led to the idea that we can best understand ourselves by understanding nature and our place in it.

• Also seen by the Church as a direct threat
• Descartes:  Cartesian Dualism = separation of mind and matter

1. Believed that doubt was the key to knowledge, not unquestioning loyalty

Commercial Revolution:

• 17th Century saw the development of new patterns of trade, colonization and commodities which increased material luxuries for all of Europe
• Dutch were the first great commercial empire, then the English
• Commercial revolution can be understood in three phases;  precious metal trade, spice trade and plantation system

Precious Metal Trade:  1440-1660

Overview:  Story of constant economic development.  Began with the trade of precious metals for goods and eventually developed into colonization and the plantation system.

• Trade was largely controlled on the national level by monopolies

Precious Metal Trade

• Began in the Americas under the leadership of the Spanish
• Eventually weakened by Dutch / English pirates and a loss of control over the  trade routes
• Opened the Americas for colonization and trade

Spice Trade:

• Europeans (Portuguese, then the Dutch and English) exchanged precious metals for spices (Pepper, Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Ect.)
• Began as bilateral trade

Result:  Commercial revolution brought ever increasing wealth to Europe in the form of goods and services.
The Dutch Economic Miracle:

• How did the Dutch rise to become the greatest European Economic Empire of the 17th Century?

1.  Innovative techniques

• Flyboats
• Bank of Amsterdam, financial changes

1. giro banking, bill of transfer and bills of exchange

2.  Rational Management

• Creation of entrepots as central areas of trade and distribution
• Became more efficient traders
• Triangle trade replaced bilateral trade when possible

3.  Supportive social / cultural environment

• Protestant immigration (manufacturing skills and capital resources)
• Trade embrace by all classes
• Relatively free society

Rise of the “Dutch Masters”

• Rise to power began in 30 Years War against Spain

1. Robbed Spanish treasure ships
2. immigration of protestants (skilled workers with capital resources)

• Good manufactures and farmers, but excellent traders
• Amsterdam built to be an entrepot for goods

1. Center of distribution and financial resources

Typical pattern of Mercantile organization:

• Usually under the kings control

• Easy to tax.  Little opposition from the nobles, merchants passed on the tax to end user
• Competition was managed by states, not individuals

Mercantilist Theory:

• Wealth of a nation resided in the stock of precious metal
• All economic activity was based on a zero-sum model (understood wealth to be fixed)
• Result:  Development of protectionist policies and state-sponsored monopolies

            ex.  English Navigation Acts of the 1660’s and the French policies of Colbert
Financing:
Joint-Stock companies:  sell portion of cost to diminish individual risk, eventually stocks became considered negotiable

• English and Dutch East India Companies highly profitable, no one else repeated the success

1. Dutch (VOIC) traded sliver and silk between Japan and China
2. English traded opium for tea with the Chinese

New Commodities:
Spices:

• Euro Asian trade began as a bilateral trade to satisfy European consumer demands

1. Driven by Precious metals from Americas for spices, silks, coffee, jewels, ect.

• 1650 Dutch dominated the spice trade

Calicoes:

• Soft, lightweight and brightly colored cotton from India
• Dutch began trade, English expanded
• Good commodity (storage)

Coffee:

• Coffeehouses became popular among the wealthy by the mid 17th Century

Tea:

• Popular at all levels of European society, within one generation it became a dietary staple
• Importation rose from 100,000 lbs to 15 million lbs annually
• Chinese tea and West Indian sugar = revolution in nutrition
• Began as bilateral trade, introduction of opium led to a triangular trade

Sugar:

• Seemingly unlimited demand = high prices
• European production began in Brazil under the Portuguese, process refined and made profitable by the Dutch (then copied by everyone else)
• Problems of sugar production, labor intensive … could be worst job in the 17th Century

African Slave:

• Originally imported for gold / sliver mines
• Other slave crops:  tobacco, sugar, rice, indigo

Tobacco:

• Introduced and became widely popular under the guidance of Dutch marketing and distribution

Plantation System:

• Developed in response to the incredibly demand for the new commodities
• Set a pattern of empire development based upon trade, not national conquest

1. Goal was profit first

• Dutch enter Brazil as an extension of the 30 Years War
• Displaced Iberian power of Portuguese and made the sugar trade more profitable
• Labor intensive trade created a demand for slaves
• European dominance over African slaves depended upon a process of deculturation

1. Few to no 2nd generation slaves at first (4-5 year life expectancy)

• Economic payoff:
• most plantation owners barely made enough to survive
• once 2nd generation slavery appeared, profitability of the slave trade declined
• only people making money were those selling sugar in Europe

Government in the Colonies
America’s = direct government

• Europeans set up models of government to facilitate the plantation systems production
• North America, exclusivity developed in response to Bacon’s Rebellion
• South / Central America, creolization developed into a social hierarchy
• Spanish claimed a missionary grace, used Church as a key instrument of government

Wars of Commerce
Zero-Sum paradigm led the Europeans into direct competition and conflict over commerce

• 17th Century = scramble for colonies (support the plantation system)
• 18th Century = warfare as the English replaced the Dutch as the leaders of trade and the French became the new rival to the leader

Mercantile Wars

• English and Dutch fought a series of three wars over leadership in commerce

1. War was precipitated by the English Navigation Acts of the 1660’s
2.            -  Conflict ended with the ascendance of William of Orange to the throne of England as William III (1688)

• Dutch v. France

1. Wars began as a result of Colbert’s attempt to create a self-sufficient France
2. Imposed high tariffs and protectionists practices
3. Louis XIV tried to press his claim to the Spanish Netherlands

• Driven back by the flooding of the fields
• As the war widened Fr. was forced to withdraw

Wars of Louis XIV

• Louis XIV sought to expand territorial claims to the east and south
• As Fr. tried to seize Cologne Grand Alliance formed against him

1. GA = Leopold I of Austria and William III of England
2. 9 Years War was fought to a draw

• Europe began to develop the concept of balance of power (collective security)

War of Spanish Succession

• Philip IV (Spanish King), married daughters off to Louis XIV and Leopold I, son (Charles II) and future king was unable to produce a male heir
• Fr. and Austria began discussions of how to carve up the Spanish empire
• Spain offers entire empire to Philip Anjou (Louis XIV’s grandson) conditionally, 1.  Accept entire Spanish empire, 2.  Reject the French crown

1. If he rejected offer they would offer Leopold’s son (Charles)

• Charles II died before details could be worked out
• Upon death Philip Anjou was proclaimed king, Leopold I and Austria contest
• Louis XIV lent army to Philip to attack Netherlands
• 2nd Grand Alliance formed to oppose the growth of Bourbon power

1. England, Austria, Netherlands and Prussia

• During peace negotiations Leopold died Charles VI became Austrian king and claimed Spain
• Resolution:  Spanish empire was carved up between England, Austria and France and Spain itself was left in tact

1. Treaty of Utrecht 1713-1714

Colonial Wars

• Growth of consumer goods coming out of the Americas
• Seven Years War b/w the English and French over the Ohio River

Valley

• Conflict established Great Britain as the undisputed leader of commerce

Adam Smith Notes
Eighteenth century intellectual background

• Enlightenment (new way of thinking in Europe) challenged the traditional philosophical authorities (Church)
• Witnessed changes in American society which eventually led to revolution
• Saw development of worldwide trade (colonialism) and the beginning of the industrial revolution
• Sought to understand and explain the world around him

Personal background:

• Born and raised in Scotland
• Began as a theology student, then moved to studying Rhetoric and Law
• Began teaching Logic at Glasgow, fired for being to radical (challenged traditional theology)
• Traveled throughout France as a tutor, influenced by Mercantilist (economic system based on favorable balance of trade) thought

Mercantilist:

• Economic wealth arose from production
• Only agricultural enterprise produced wealth

Saw the world in terms of zero sum game
Wealth of Nations, 1776 (outlined Smiths ideas about economic activity)
Basis of Classical Economics

• All people’s actions are based on their own self-interest (we all do what is best for our selves)

1. Desire for self-improvement

• Trade is a natural instinct for all people; seek to improve their condition
• To experience growth society should encourage natural instinct of people
• If all seek to improve their own self-interest then the interest of society are advanced
• Invisible hand will guide individuals to make the best decisions for society
• Prices guide consumers to buy, profits guide producers to produce

Market at work
Scarcity:

• Use scarce resources to produce products desired and valued higher than they were as a raw material.
• Price is determined by the cost of raw material, cost of labor and a reasonable profit

1. If a reasonable profit can’t be obtained then production will cease

• If a higher profit can be achieved in production of a different good, then production will shift to the more profitable good

Division of Labor:
Results in:

• Increase productivity
• Increased expertise
• Creativity leading to innovation and technology advancements

Why do some people get paid more than others?

•             1.  Conditions of labor (dangerous jobs pay more)
•             2.  Specialized training (Doctors)
•             3.  Regularity and security of job
•             4.  Level of trust required (name-brands cost more)
•             5.  Level of risk (Lawyers in civil suits)

Division of Labor between countries and regions:

• -  Comparative Advantage: some areas hold an inherent advantage

1.                         - Grapefruit / wheat paradox

• -  Results in a need for trade to promote the overall interests of society

Free markets impact on the common man

• - Free market should allow people to achieve according to their abilities
• -  Provides opportunity for all, challenges the concept of classed society
• - Will this solve racism and discrimination? (Smith would say yes)

Summary of Adam Smith’s ideas:
Economic growth occurred as a result of:

• 1.  Increased labor supply
• 2.  Subdivision of labor
• 3.  Increase in production of labor through mechanization

Result:  ever increasing standard of living for humans
Policies and Practice:
Government should stay out of the way, instead allow the “invisible hand” guide the production and consumption of goods

• - Don’t manage or protect trade, allow competition to occur

Exception:  Provide infrastructure (roads, canals, railways), administration of justice (court system) and military protection

•             -  Why the exception?

• -  Infrastructure helps promote trade and economic growth

Smith saw trade as a win-win scenario, challenged the zero sum paradigm…

At the beginning of the 18^th Century the map of Europe was remade by two major treaties, the resulting shifts in boarders created serious shifts in power throughout the continent…

Treaty of Utrecht 1713-1714, ended the War of Spanish Succession

• Austria:  gained the Spanish Netherlands and Spanish territories in Italy
• France:  gained territory in Alsace and Lorraine, while giving up colonial possessions in the Americas
• England:  gained France’s North American colonies, Gibraltar and Island of Minorca (both from Spain), Spanish trade routes to the Americas

Result:  England gained vital commercial interests and Austria became a major empire in central Europe

Treaty of Nystad 1721, ended the Great Northern War b/w Russia and Sweden over Finland and Baltic territories

• Russia:  gained territory in the Baltic region and built St. Petersburg
• Sweden:  lost land in Finland, the Baltic states and Northern Germany

Results:  Sweden fell from power, Russia and Prussia were on the rise, while Poland held on to a precarious position as they became challenged by Prussia, Russia and the Ottoman Empire

Rise of Russia

Russia became an established power with the victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War under the leadership of Peter the Great

Who were the Russians?

• Orthodox Christians:  Tsar had a religious obligation to promote Christianity
• Loose confederation of various peoples:  Mongols, Ottomans, Tartars, Cossacks, Muscovites

1.   Sharp contrast to most other European states which were homogenous

Peter the Great

Overview:  “Opened Russia to Europe and Europe to Russia”

• Reforms were created around the desire to become a great military power

1. Establishment of embassies in Western Europe and two personal visits
2. Recruited Western Europeans to advance Russian Army, Navy and statecraft
3. Poll Tax 1724:  Shift tax burden on to the individual, increased the govt. ability to collect taxes (support the army)
4. Census:  gave govt. more power to collect taxes
5. Conscription:  both peasants and gentry to create a standing army of over 330,000

• Meant life service, better trained military

1. Senate:  Group of nine senior military leaders to facilitate management of the Army

• Procurator-General oversaw the Senate

1. Fiscals (500):  began as tax collectors developed into a national policing agency
2. Table of Ranks:  an official hierarchy of the state, established an individuals position

• 3 Categories (Military, Civil and Land Owning), each with 14 steps
• Enter at the bottom rank and rise through experience and merit

Impact: 

• Advancement was tied to achievement
• Peter elevated Military category over the Landed Aristocracy to centralize the government allowing new groups to enter the Russian Elite.
• Created a new class of Russian Nobility to serve in the military (just when everyone else was trying to get rid of theirs)

• Educational Reform:  instituted educational reform to support the military and embraced liberal education
• Jump started manufacturing industries:  Textiles, glass, leather, iron and copper

1. by 1726 Russia led all nations in production of iron and copper

Results:

• Russia developed one of the most powerful armies and navies in all of Europe
• Russian society was fundamentally changed at the top, which led to conflict b/w Peter and the Aristocracy
• Life changed little for the peasantry

Russian Rural Life:

• 97% of the Russian people were connected to agriculture for a living
• Quality of the land was poor for agriculture
• Peasants became considered property as of 1649 (serfs)
• Most land owners were small and poor, measured wealth by the numbers of serfs
• Many serfs sought better conditions by moving to state sponsored lands and projects.

Catherine the Great

• Government after Peter the Great was in chaos for 37 years
• Population increased, aristocratic wealth increased (measured in serfs), power of the aristocracy increased (govt. weaker and they were stronger)

Result:  Succeeding Tsars had to grant increasing rights to the aristocracy so that they could hold the throne

• by 1762 obligation of service had been eliminated altogether

Catherine the Great's reign:

• Began with the murder of her husband (Peter III), seen as too close to the Prussians during the Seven Years War
• Part Enlightened and part absolutist
• Instruction 1767, instructions for government officials to behave in a more socially progressive way (encouraged the elimination of torture and capital punishment)
• Restructured the government into 50 provincial districts and required the service of the local aristocracy
• Charter of the Nobility 1785, laid out the rights and obligations of the nobility
• Reforms created a demand for educational change, restructured the entire educational system below the university level
• Did nothing the end Serfdom, still a major social and economic problem

Pugachev's Revolt:

• Emelyan Pugachev - Cossack
• 1773 Claimed to be Tsar Peter III
• by 1774 Pugachev threatened Moscow
• betrayed, sent to Moscow and executed
• Popularity of the revolt was tied to the terrible living conditions of the Russian people

Results of Peter and Catherine:

• St. Petersburg became a window through which Europe and Russia experienced one another
• Development of a modern Russian Military
• Institution of Feudal practices to promote military strength slowed down Russian economic development
• Life and conditions of the peasantry failed to significantly improve

Two Germanys

• 30 Years War left the unity of the HRE shattered

1. Two major empires arose:  Austrians and Prussians

 Development of Prussia

• Poor natural barriers and surrounded by powerful would be conquerors necessitated the build up of a powerful military
• Fredrick William I:  ("The Great Elector") accepted protestant / Jewish refugees provided sound economic development and bureaucratic expansion created a stable government system
• Fredrick William II:  ("The Great") used military service and bureaucratic expansion to create a sense of obligation / statehood

1. Goals:  Silesia and the Polish Corridor
2. Reforms:  increased centralization of the state, abolished torture and capital    punishment, and imported new agricultural techniques

Result:  Prussia became a major power

Development of Austria:

• Austrian Empire grew as a result of the War of Spanish Succession (Netherlands and Italy)
• Expanded into Hungary - pushed back the Ottoman Empire
• Look strong from the outside, reality the Austrians had many problems:

• Human Resources:  Counter-Reformation and Jesuit influence in response to the presence of the Ottomans forced the evacuation of over 200,000 Protestants

1. Loss of skill and capital to northern German provinces
2. Set back Austrian economic development

• Governmental Control:  The Austrian monarchy only had loose control over several of their provinces (Hungary was in theory and independent state)

1. Multi-ethnic empire with constant struggle b/w peoples

• Financial challenges:  95% of the population lived in rural areas

1. Feudal traditions still very strong, the poor were still seen as serfs and thus paid          such high taxes to their lords they could not afford state taxes (nobles exempt)

Result:  The Austrian Empire looked powerful from the outside, but the reality was that they could only muster a small and poorly equipped army

• Succession:  Charles VI had no male heir

1. Pragmatic Sanction:  recognized the right of Maria Theresa to inherit Austrian lands, but not the title of Emperor

Maria Theresa 1740-1780

• Immediately attacked by Prussia
• Successfully defended Austria in the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War
• Together with Joseph II (son 1780-1790) Maria Theresa reformed and revitalized Austria society

1. Reorganized the military and civil bureaucracy leading to the ability of the state            to collect taxes and in part solve financial problems
2. Continually seek to roll back remnants of the Feudal system by limiting           demands placed on serfs / peasants (eventually force to back off by the nobility)

War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748

• Fredrick William II attempted to force an alliance with Maria Theresa, she declined and he attacked (goal: Silesia)
• Prussia, France and Spain v. Austria, England and Holland
• Austria lost Silesia (important industrial center) to Prussia and Italian territories to Spain, but with the help of the British and Hungarian forces they survived

Impact:  War made Austria and Prussia permanent enemies and rivals seeking to unify Germany under their leadership

Seven Years War 1756-1763

• Britain and Prussia v. France, Austria and Russia
• Fredrick William II attacked Saxony and Austria, Russia came to their defense
• 1759 Russians defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Kunersdorf
• 1762  Empress Elizabeth (Russia) died, Peter III settled for peace (admiration of FW II), led to his assassination
• Prussia able to hang on and defend it' territory

Impact: 

• Established Prussia as a major military power / counter-balance to the Austrian Empire in Central Europe
• Initiated a long period of peace in central Europe (drained of resources)

Partitioning of Poland

• Autonomous power of the Polish nobility remained intact and the Polish Diet proved to be an ineffective lawmaking body
• Government was unable to raise an effective army

• 1772 Prussia, Russia and Austria partitioned Poland

1. Prussia gained the Polish Corridor
2. Russia gained a vast buffer state
3. Austria gained vast territory in southern Poland

The Greatness of Great Britain

• 1707 Scotland and England joined = Great Britain
• By the mid 18^th Century:

1. Military power

• Great Army (guns)
• Unsurpassed navy

1. Economic power

• Colonial possessions
• Growth of domestic production (agriculture and industry)

1. Governmental system

• Constitutional system, with a “mixed” govt.

British Government

• Mixed govt. meant that power was shared by the king and the parliament (ruling elite)

Impact:  infusion of the ruling elite into the government integrated the interests of the local peoples into a central government

• The people of Great Britain came to understand the role of the government to act in the best interest of society
• Weakness:  to gain a consensus required at the very least capitulation of opposition

1. Compromise and collaboration led to weak and ineffective reform aimed more at placating the people rather than solving problems
2. Laws tended to patch work and reactionary in nature

Structure:

House of Commons:  Lower house of Parliament, typically “nominated” / elected to office

Monarchy: still seen as divine, and symbol of the nation Power:  select ministers, initiate policy and supervise / administer govt. 

• Served a term of office
• Represented the ideas of the gentry class (lower nobility)
• Eventually became the driving force of British political system

Power:  raise revenue, make laws and represent grievances of the people

House of Lords:  Upper house of Parliament, based upon hereditary rights

• Life membership
• Represented the desires of the aristocracy

Power:  raise revenue, make laws and represent grievances of the people

System was dependant upon cooperation

• Members of Parliament often worked for the crown at the same time as serving in parliament
• Rise of Parties
• Rise of the “Prime” Minister

Parties:

Impact:  Parties helped to build consensus and create compromise, enabling the mixed govt. of Britain to function more effectively

Ministers helped organize and lead parliament

• Robert Walpole – First Lord of the Treasury, became the first dominating parliamentary figure

1. Created a precedence for a “prime” minister
2. Created an 18^th Century political machine

Hanoverian succession

William and Mary of Orange – Queen Anne - ???? James III or George I

Intro to Enlightenment

Enlightenment: period of time roughly 1720-1790 when scholars believed in the use of reason and scientific method

• The use of reason eventually sparked revolution throughout the world
• A new way of looking at religion, politics and society
• Based upon Cartesian influence of doubt and skepticism - criticism

 Philosophers based their ideas on the discoveries of the scientific revolution

 Principles of Enlightened Thought

1. Reason: Logic which is absent of intolerance, bigotry and prejudice
2. Nature: Natural laws for everything
3. Happiness: Result of accepting nature’s laws
4. Progress: Could perfect human society
5. Liberty: Freedom of thought

 Who participated?

• France: anti-establishment critics (salons)
• Scotland and German States: universities
• Prussia, Austria and Russian: Monarchy

 Immanuel Kant: What is the Enlightenment? 1784

• Freedom to use one's mind

 Enlightenment began with the confluence of the English empirical - analytical (Newton / Locke) movement and the French rationalist movement (Descartes)

• Voltaire was brought the two movements together

 Voltaire:

• Francois - Marie Arouet, pen name Voltaire
• Jesuit education, general trouble maker (challenged authority), forced to live in England for three years
• Traveled through out Europe over the course of his life

 Philosophical Letters Concerning the English Nation 1734

• Presented the English system as superior to the French in terms of religious tolerance, political constitution and empirical expression of thought

 Candide 1759

• Story about young man who was forced to travel throughout the known world
• "Travel" literature was a common genre of satirical literature during the Enlightenment
• ie. Persian Letter, 1721 (Montesquieu). Gulliver's Travels, 1726 (Swift).
• Satire aimed at a very cosmopolitan audience, attacked all traditional sources of authority in Europe

 Treaties on Toleration 1763

• attempted to clear memory of Jean Cala (accused of murdering his son to prevent conversion to Catholicism)
• Attacked intolerance and the Christian church

 Deist: Deism saw god as an inventor of natural law with little or no interference

• God as a clockmaker

 Impact of Voltaire: life work resulted in the confluence of the British empirical / analytical movement with French rationalism, creating the basis of the French Enlightenment

 David Hume: 1711-1776

• Scottish Philosopher
• Claimed to be too skeptical to be an atheist
• An Enquiry Concerning Human Knowledge, 1748

1. All knowledge was dependent upon sensory input, thus no knowledge could be absolute
2. Church was no longer absolute

• “Religion grows out of hope or fear”

 Montesquieu

• Charles – Louis de Secondat a.k.a. Baron Montesquieu
• Persian Letters, 1721. “Travel” genre. Satire of Parisian morals from the perspective of Persian diplomats.
• Called all aspects of French society into question
• Considerations on the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, 1734
• established pattern of historical study
• examined the decline and fall to understand natural laws of government

1. Rome fell because grandeur and decadence destroyed traditional Roman virtues

• Conclusion: One can only maintain a healthy govt. / society by maintaining virtue
• The Spirit of Laws, 1748
• Attempt to expand upon the conclusions presented in the Considerations
• All govt. fit into one of three categories
• Republics, Monarchies and despots
• Republics were upheld by virtue and moderation, but threatened by vice and excess
• Monarchies were upheld by honor, kings guided by LAW, threatened by corruption

1. Despotism was monarchy without the guidance of law, authority rested upon fear & oppression
2. To prevent the rise of Despotism, govt. must have the power to govern but also prevent corruption and the loss of virtue
3. How? Separation of power and checks and balances

Application: British system was the best. Monarchy with a strong independent aristocracy as a check on the monarchy

 Impact: In the Persian Letters, Montesquieu helped established the “Travel” genre of enlightenment literature and roundly criticized almost every aspect of society. In Considerations, Montesquieu established a pattern of historical study and an examination of the fall of Rome. In the Spirit of Laws, Montesquieu established the idea that govt. should not act in an arbitrary fashion, and in fact should be restrained. Spirit of Laws is also seen as the first sociological work in history as it examines ideal social systems rather than real.

 Rousseau

• Saw man’s existence in nature as essentially good, society corrupted and turn man to evil
• Led him to a philosophy often described as romantic empiricism

 Emile, 1762

• Story of a child and an ideal education
• Heavy influence of Locke (blank mind), Rousseau depicted individual as a “noble savage” who was corrupted by society
• Education should focus on the individual and the transformation of the individual into a citizen

 Social Contract, 1762

• Attempt to take the “noble savage” of Emile and place them into society as a citizen
• Man entered society of their own accord and retained their sovereignty
• Thus the state should be controlled not by a separation of powers but by the law, which should represent the general desires of the people – the General Will (GW)
• What is the GW?

 Problem: How should the GW be deciphered?

Two options:

• Counting votes: led to a democratic understanding of Rousseau

1. Problem: will this determine the Will of All or the GW?

• Abstract moral justice: must be understood by a special person, philosopher / king?

1. Problem: became a justification for totalitarianism

Rousseau as a totalitarian philosopher:

• opposed parties and political associations as representing the ideas of a few
• opposed organized religion independent of the state as a violation of the GW

Cesare Beccaria

• Crimes and Punishments, 1764
• Laws should be instituted to promote happiness within society
• Punishment should be just and act as a deterrent to crime & rehabilitation
• Advocated the abolition of torture and capital punishment

 General impact of the Enlightenment:

In general the Enlightenment was developed in Western Europe, but had a greater impact on governments in Eastern Europe (Prussia, Austria and Russia)

•  Presented a new educational model

1. Social reform through education was seen as the key to creating a better society
2. Attack the Jesuit strangle hold on education, left a void that would be filled by the governments
3. ie. Russian and Austrian states increase primary education for nobility

• Ideas of progress and optimism

1. Enlightenment philosophers believed that it was possible to improve society, invent the work optimism to express their hope in the future ( a new concept)

Marquis de Condorcet: The Progress of the Human Mind,1795 pulled together the ideas of educational and social reform advancing the idea that the human mind was in a state of educational evolution

•  Law

1. Beccaria impacted the legislative reforms of Catherine the Great and Joseph II of Austria

• Impact of the reorganization of legal systems in Eastern Europe was to increase the centralization of government administration

4. Religious Toleration

• Impacted both Eastern and Western Europe
• Increasing toleration of dissenting religious positions
• States openly broke with Rome (Spain and France expelled the Jesuits) 

5. Social change

• Individuals saw the purpose of life to increase their happiness through the advancement of their self-interests (Smith)

Background to the Revolution:

• Enlightenment: Spread of new ideas at the upper levels of French society created new expectations and possibilities (optimism and progress based upon the acceptance of nature)

1. Provided the intellectual shift away from absolutism

• Financial problems: Fr. Nation of great wealth and great poverty existing side by side

1. Disputes over taxation were common place throughout the late 17th and entire 18th centuries (exacerbated by military demands - failure in the Seven Years War)

• Political problems: Fr. Lacked sufficient bureaucratic infrastructure to implement royal policies

1. Govt. authority still rested largely upon medieval concepts
2. Monarchy in constant competition with the nobility for power
3. Louis XVI very bad at being king

• Conflict b/w social classes

1. Aristocracy: constituted the first and second estates, traditional held power
2. Bourgeoisie: wealthy and powerful class on the rise
3. Sans-Culottes: urban working poor
4. Peasants: rural working poor

• Public Opinion: increased urbanization and mercantilist behavior led to an increase in literacy and publication of printed materials: Newspapers, periodicals and pamphlets

1. Pamphlets allowed for the expression and shaping of public opinion into an effective revolutionary tool

How the French Government worked (or didn't?)

• Mixture of feudal system and centralized government under the leadership of the king
• King: in theory absolute, in practice restricted by feudal tradition and power of nobles
• Legislative body: Estates General - tricameral

1. 1st Estate: Clergy (traditionally the wealthiest, ie. Aristocracy
2. 2nd Estate: Nobles (especially the Great Nobles)
3. 3rd Estate: Everyone else

• Voting: Traditionally each Estate received one vote, thus the nobility and king worked together to dominate all proceedings
• Competition b/w King and nobles led to the failure of the king to call the Estates General b/w 1614 and 1792
• Courts: Parlements (13 regional courts), Parisian Parlement was the most prestigious and powerful
• Before Kings declarations could become law the Parlements had to register the declaration (check on kings)
• In addition, France retained well over 100 separate and often times conflicting legal codes stemming from feudal tradition
• Regional government: Still guided by the legacy of the feudal system, seen as repressive by the peasantry and essential by the nobility
• Often times abused by the nobility (finding "new" rights in an "ancient" document)

Louis XVI

• Nice guy, couldn't make a decision when he needed to.
• Inherited great fiscal problems of indebtedness
• Made them worse through financing the American Revolution
• By the 1780's half the national budget went to serving the debt
• French Taxation: due to tradition almost everyone who could afford taxes was exempt
• System became increasingly regressive
• Sold every office possible to increase revenues, not enough

 Attempt at Reform

• Focus was often short sighted: looked for new revenue creating greater resentment

1. Turgot: appointed Controller-General by Louis XVI, attempted laissez-faire reforms and soundly defeated by guilds, merchants and nobles
2. Necker: created first accounting of the French Budget, attempted reform through increasing efficiency of govt. (wanted to eliminate tax-farmers)

• created both broad support and absolute enemies

1. Calonne: proposed to restructure taxation into a more progressive system

• Nobility forced him to reform

1. Brienne: advocated short term loans

Conflict: Parlement of Paris refused any new tax or loan for the king. Thus Louis XVI was forced to disband the Parlement and call a meeting of the Estates General (had not met since 1614)

• Missed opportunity: Louis XVI could have compromised with the Parlement of Paris, but chose to maintain his claim to absolute authority

 First Stage of the Revolution:

 April 1798: Louis was forced to call a meeting of the Estates General (first in 178 years)

• Problems: no established precedents for selection of membership or operation of the legislative body
• Held national elections, results

1. wealthy bourgeois, lower nobility (sympathetic to the peasants) and lower clergy dominated the 3^rd Estate
2. A sense of hope for reform developed among the people, increasing expectations

• Each of the three Estates and the king had very different agendas

1. 1^st Estate: maintain tax exemptions and power / privilege of the nobility
2. 2^nd Estate: secure economic and political freedom, wanted a constitutional monarchy in the model of England (only great lords would have political power)
3. 3^rd Estate: wanted to end the legacy of Feudalism and the privileges of the nobility

• Cahiers de Doleances: lists of grievances drawn up by each Estate, king was expected to deal with each grievance (tradition)

1. Taxes and complaints about the state bureaucracy (tax farmers) led the lists
2. Impact: together with the national elections the Cahiers de Doleances helped create very high expectations and a sense of a new national political ideology

Meeting: 

Louis made mistakes:

• Called for in May (very bad time of year, traditional unrest)
• Louis missing for a week when the delegates arrived at Versailles
• No agenda, the meeting lacked any sense of direction

 1^st meeting:

• 3^rd Estate fought every element of tradition (dress and kneeling), demanded that voting conducted based on per representative
• Sieyes developed as a key leader of the 3^rd Estate, set the agenda
• Meeting quickly reached a stalemate

 National Assembly:

• In response to the stalemate the 3^rd Estate took the dramatic step of meeting alone (invited the others to attend)
• Louis failed to act for three days, then locked them out
• Met across the street in a tennis court
• Oath of the

• Goal: establish a representative government based on a constitution
• Became the National Assembly, widely supported by popular opinion
• Fearing popular support Louis attempted reconciliation (ordered everyone to meet together), too late
• Louis then called in the Swiss Guard (feared the loyalty of his troops)
• Swiss hated by the people, this move was seen as a step towards oppression
• July 14,1789 people of Paris storm the Bastille (prison / armory), Louis sent in his troops to put down rebellion they joined the rioters
• Lafayette took command of the rioters who formed a National Guard

1. Adopt the tri-color flag (Red / Blue for Paris and White for the Bourbon Monarchy)

 The Great Fear and Peasant Revolt:

• With events spinning out of control in Paris and Versailles and a series of poor harvests an uncertainty spread across the countryside (driven by publications)
• “great fear”: idea that Fr. Society was falling apart
• Peasant Revolt: began just outside of Paris and spread like a shock-wave throughout France

1. Bands of Peasants attacked the privileges of the landed nobility, went to their houses and demanded all legal documents and then burned them

 August 4 1798 National Assembly responded to the Peasant Revolt

• Representatives state, “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” for all as their goals

1. Meeting goes late into the night and got a little out of hand, everyone began to renounce their privileges

August 27, 1798 the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens

• Guaranteed equal justice, freedom of religion and speech

 October unrest:

• Continuing high bread prices resulted in a massive bread riot, as a result 6000 women march to Versailles and demand redress from Louis
• In a nearly bloodless standoff they forced Louis and his family to return to Paris with them
• Impact: King was no long insulated from popular unrest

 Between 1798 and 1790 a counter-revolutionary fervor began to develop:

• Religious
• Nobility
• Economic distress cause a popular backlash
• Foreign conflict (Austria) added support for the counter-revolutionary group and fractured revolutionary support

 March 1791, the National Assembly finished their work, creating a constitutional monarchy

• King signed it, appeared to publicly support it
• Established the idea that sovereignty rested with the people
• Louis and his family caught trying to steal away in the middle of the night (June)
• Women’s rights: seemed to many to be a natural extension of revolutionary principles, rejected by the National Assembly (Rights of Woman and Citizen)

 September 1791 the Legislative Assembly was elected (per the new constitution)

• Did not know what to do? Divided.
• Conservatives: sat "on the Right", wanted the king to be returned to power, no more changes
• Radicals: sat "on the left", wanted to eliminate the king altogether
• Moderates: sat "in the middle"
• Decided that without a monarch, they had to call a new representative body to create a new govt.

 April 1792, France declared war on Austria

• Act Two: The Radicalization of the Revolution / The Terror
• September 1792 National Convention met to chart a new course, the convention eliminated the monarchy and place Louis on trial
• Dominated by two groups of radical revolutionaries

1. Girondins: most popular group, moderate revolutionaries – looked for a compromise solution
2. Jacobins: extreme radical revolutionaries, wanted to end the monarchy and establish representative democracy

• During the National Convention the war with Austria turned bad, coupled with counter-revolutionary fervor and popular unrest (agitated by the Jacobins)
• The Girondin control slowly slipped away as the Jacobin’s continued to organize in the streets and cause problems

1. The Jacobins were using the sans-culottes (think of the workers in the Great Cat Massacre) as muscle in mob violence to gain control over the National Convention
2. ex. August 1972, the sans-culottes raided the home of the king in Paris

 Crisis faced the National Convention:

1. Economic:

• Finances were based upon the Assignat (paper currency) backed up by the "bien nationanx" (royalist and church lands seized by the revolutionary govt.)
• Assignat: govt. printed more money (finance foreign wars) than they had in assets to back it up
• Food shortage: poor harvests and foreign blockades
• War time failures: French generals sensing failure began to switch sides
• Vendee / Choouans: riots in response to conscription

While the Convention focused on a new constitution the power to govern was turned over to the Committee of Public Safety (known as the “Great Committee” at the time)

• July 1793 to July 1794, Robespierre (Jacobin leader) controlled the Committee of Public Safety and thus gained control over the direction of the Revolution
• Robespierre used the Committee to conduct the Reign of Terror

1. Robespierre was heavily influenced by the Social Contract and saw himself as the expression of the General Will (totalitarianism)

• “Terror is the Order of the Day” as a means for re-establishing stability in the face of counter-revolutionary forces and a losing effort against Austria

• Militant tribunals were hastily constructed to identify any “enemy of the state”
• Used the law to implement the terror: Law of Suspects
• Levee en Masse: gave the govt. legal right to take anything they needed for the war effort (first national mobilization in history)
• The Terror as social reform
• Attempted to replace the nobility with the Sans-Culottes and emphasized family as essential to the republic
• Implemented the Cult of the Supreme Being to replace Christianity
• 40,000 executions: victims included priests, nobles, anyone out of favor with revolutionary leaders (women’s leaders – Olympe de Gouges)

Impact: The terror was able to save France from foreign invasion at the cost of destroying democracy (the goal of the revolution)

 Themidorian Reaction

•  Robespierre was killing people across the political spectrum
• Enemies rallied (Girondin) together and disassociated Robespierre from the General Will
• Danton (former friend and political ally) gave the order to guillotine Robes.
• Marked the beginning of the end of popular revolution

 1794 the Directory was established to lead France

• Collection of five men, serving set terms in office to act as the executive branch
• Elected by the two thirds rule (2/3 of the convention votes)
• Often proved to be ripe with corruption and largely ineffective
• Faced opposition from the popularists and the monarchists
• Also still engaged in a massive foreign war with Austria and it’s allies
• Forced to conscript large armies = declining popularity

 Stage 3: The Reign of Napoleon 1977-1815

Napoleon Bonaparte: 1769-1812

• Born on Corsica into the lower nobility
• Attended Military school
• Embraced Artillery in school (social advancement + strategic importance)

1795 – Suppressed riots against the Directory

• “Whiff of Grapeshot”
• Rewarded with the Italian Campaign – success
• Egyptian Campaign – made him a national hero, despite military failure
• Battle of the Nile

 1799 – Napoleon made himself “first counsel” in a coup

 Avoided Criticism by espousing no clear ideology

 Consolidated power through reform:

• Guaranteed revolutionary property
• Balanced the budget
• Restored Catholicism
• Military success ensured safety of France
• Established peace with all other nations
• Created the Code de Napoleon
• Metric System
• Bureaucratic reforms
• New Nobility: Legion of Honor
• Patron of Science (promote industrial / military development)
• Rebuilt French infrastructure
• Rebuilt the ascetics and structure of Paris (Champs d’ Elyss)
• Bank of France (national bank to stabilize the econ.)

 1802 Plebiscite elected Napoleon First Counsel for life

• 1803 War renewed
• 1804 Napoleon crowned himself emperor
• 1805: Austria defeated

Battle of Austerliz (Dec. 1805): Napoleon smashed Austrian army

Battle of Trafalgar (1805), Horatio Nelson: Britain destroyed French navy

• Established supremacy of British navy for over a century
• Napoleon forced to cancel invasion of Britain

1806: Prussia defeated

Battle of Jena: Napoleon defeated Prussia in 1806

1807: Russians defeated at Friedland (signed a treaty with the French)

1808: Invaded Spain

• Francisco Goya - The Disasters of War (anti-Nap. propaganda)

Decline and fall of Napoleon

1. Continental System: In response to his inability to invade England, Nap. Blockaded English goods from European markets

• Berlin Decree, 1806: British ships not allowed in European ports
•  “order in council”, 1806: Britain proclaimed any ship going to Europe had to stop there first
• Milan Decree, 1807: Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized when it entered the Continent.
• Failed: allies (by force) refused to sustain the blockage, English navy too powerful
• Impact: created fissures within the Napoleonic Empire (Russian Campaign)

2. Peninsular War: Spain 1808-1814

• Nap. Tried to suppress Sp. Guerrilla warfare (Duke of Wellington)
• Proved impossible to defeat, lost 400,000 of his best troops

3. Russian Campaign: 1812

• Tensions over the Continental System led to war
• Nap. Invaded with 500,000 men, returned with less than 100,000
• Scorched Earth policy implemented 
• Nap. Reached Moscow in Sept. to find it in flames
• Retreat by Nov., too late
• Cossacks massacre French in retreat

Grand Alliance

• Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia v. France
• Battle of Nations at Leipzig (1813) Alliance won

1. “first” Treaty of Paris (1814)

• France surrendered all lands gained since 1792
• Nap. Exiled to Elba (too close), he returned
• Final Battle of Waterloo, Duke of Wellington defeated Nap. For a final time

1.  “2^nd” Treaty of Paris: dealt more harshly w/ France; large indemnity, some minor territories

• - Exiled to St. Helena

Traditional Economy:

• Mid 18th Century 89% of Europeans still farmed for a living
• Human Capital (Labor) drove the economy dominated by agriculture

Changes:

• Overseas trade created a greater demand for goods and manufacturing labor
• Agricultural revolution freed labor from traditional agriculture and increased food production (permissive cause to the Industrial revolution)

NOTE: Both the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions were "revolutionary in consequence, rather than development"

Farming Families:

• Open-field System: farming through a communal enterprise to protect and ensure the long-term viability of the village

1. The village implemented all agricultural decisions in a cooperative manner, while each individual held strips of land and rights pertaining to the land
2. Effective system to support communal subsistence farming (safer)
3. Limited the number of people who could be survive from output
4. Conservative system:

• No desire for change
• Products were perishable, encouraged subsistence farming
• Feudal Taxes / serfdom discouraged the entrepreneurial spirit
• Failed Risk could spell doom to the entire village

• Growth in Open Field System was through the intensification rather than innovation

1. ie. Clear more land, sow more seed
2. Impact of intensification and the Open Field System was violent economic cycles in which over population / famine in one generation would lead to surplus in the next (see Malthus)

• Discouraged any attempt to innovate and individual capital investment

Cottage Industry:

• Initially o supplement income families engaged in spinning and weaving through the Putting-Out System
• As the economic cycles worsened spinning and weaving became a necessary component of life

Putting-Out System:

• Entrepreneur purchased raw material
• Raw material was "put out" into the homes
• People worked in their homes
• Finished goods were returned, workers paid (piecemeal) and products sold at a profit

Evaluation of the Putting-Out System:

• Despite the inefficiencies the Putting-out System (cottage industry) dominated production in Europe by the 1750's.

Change: The Agricultural Revolution

• The continual growth of population and intensification of the traditional economy could work only so long (eventually you would run out of resources)

1. England and Holland were the first to experience a need to change their economy

• The Agricultural Revolution was one of technique combined with investment of capital and a commercial attitude

Enclosures: the end of the Open-Field System

Problems with the Open Field System:

• Discouraged private investment
• Prevented innovation
• Prevented agriculture from being responsive to market conditions (focus was on subsistence)

Consolidation: Enclosing land in the hands of individuals was a precondition for the Agricultural Revolution

• Poor families were fast to sell out and gain wage employment on the consolidated farms
• Middling sorts (those who did well in the traditional econ.) refused to sell out and were crushed in direct competition
• The process of enclosure often elicited a violent response (esp. from the middling sorts)
• 19th Century govts. supported enclosure (19th Cent. English Parliament passed legislation)

Impacts:

• The process of enclosing required massive labor
• Made investment profitable
• Encouraged large farm owners to innovate
• Encouraged large farm owners to be responsive to market conditions
• Led to the development of regional agriculture based upon comparative advantage

Innovation:

• Fodder Crops: crops which were primarily used to restore nutrients to the soil

1. Clover and turnip restored nutrients, fed livestock and produced better manure
2. Viscount Charles "Turnip" Townsend popularized the turnip in England

• Four Crop Rotation: replaced the three field system due to use of fodder crops

1. wheat - turnip - barley - clover

• Meadow Floating: flooding of pastures to produce an early spring grass for livestock

1. more livestock meant more manure (fertilizer)

Impact on agriculture:

• More food produced with less human labor
• Greater convertibility b/w grains and livestock depending on market conditions
• Began the process of regional agriculture based on soil and climate conditions

example:

1. in 1700 farmers produced enough food for 1.7 people
2. in 1800 farmers produced enough food for 2.5 people

Impact on society:

• More people
• More demand for all goods (including manufactured)
• More discretionary spending
• More landless rural poor (potential to become urban landless poor)

Industrial Revolution:

NOTE: "Revolution in Consequence rather than development"

Demographic Shifts:

1750 1800 1850

80 % rural 60% urban

Southern England Northern England

12 Banks (Egn.) 300 Banks (Eng.)

100 % pop. increase of England

1000% pop. increase of Manchester

Productivity of a single woman increased by 200X

5 million lbs of raw 588 million lbs of raw

cotton imported from NA cotton imported from NA

Coal production increased by 10 times

Iron production increased by 15 times

0 miles of Railroad in GB 7500 Miles

• The story of the IR is that of the replacement of animal / human labor with hydraulic and mineral energy
• Ingenuity rather than genius was the key

1. Major innovators were people responding to problems with invention

• IR: a sustained period of economic growth, brought about by the application of mineral energy and technical innovations to the process of manufacturing between 1750 and 1850

Britain first:

1. Water: access to oceans and internal waterways gave GB a transportation advantage

• Small standing army and large navy / shipping industry positioned them to take advantage of waterways
• Canal system supported by the Navigation Acts

Impact of transportation:

• tied regions together more closely
• lower price of commercial transportation drove more commercial activity

2. Economic infrastructure:

• Generations of colonization resulted in the cultivation of foreign markets for raw materials and sale of goods
• Shipping ability key to foreign market access
• Capital resources to invest in production

1. Bank of England became a model to create a stable banking system

3. Minerals and metals

• Coal: one miner could produce the energy of 20 horses

1. Capital industry, dominated by the wealthy
2. conditions were BAD (pg. 682)
3. Thomas Newcomen began use of steam powered engine to pump water
4. Demand for coal skyrocketed when it became essential to iron production

• Iron:

1. Coke (pure form coal) used to smelt iron (pig iron – raw, with impurities)
2. Henry Cort: “puddling and rolling” of iron lowered the cost of production and increased the quality

• cannoning

“Cotton is King”

• Replaced wool as the key textile
• As population rose (agricultural revolution) demand increased, cottage industry could not keep pace with demand (esp. in harvest season)

• To increase production John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle, which decreased the amount of time to weave

1. Problem: not enough thread to weave

• To increase production of thread John Hargraves to develop the Jenny

1. Problem: Jenny produced weak thread

• To produce higher strength thread Robert Awkwright developed the water frame
• Samual Cromptom developed the “Mule”, which combined the work of the water frame and the Jenny

Impact: innovations led to the develop of the factory as center of production

First cotton factory was built by Robert Awkwright in Cromptom

Advantages (reasons for) factories:

Needed the space to house the increasingly large machinery

• Needed to house and protect expensive machinery
• Usually required water power
• Secrecy – “safe-boxes” were the first factories
• Keep the machines in constant use
• Supervise work force
• Ensure quality of product
• Prevent embezzlement

Impact of the Factory:

• Changed the nature of work
• Changed the physical location (home / regional) of work
• Machinery reversed existing gender roles in production (men became weavers)
• Increased the demands on commercial transportation (raw material + finish goods)

The Iron Horse (railroads)

• As the IR focused on productive capacities the supply of raw materials became an increasing problem (coal and cotton)
• Transportation was a major problem (canal system became encumbered with the typical problems of any monopolistic system)

1. Transportation became a key to creating economies of scale

Railroads:

• Richard Trevithick: attempted to apply Watt’s steam engine to carriages, limited success
• George Stevenson: innovated steam locomotion with regards to traction and pressure

1. Considered the father of the modern railroad
2. Developed the “Rocket”, could haul three times its weight at 30 mph

The First Railroads

• 1830 Manchester to Liverpool was opened

1. Designed to move commercial goods, quickly caught on as a mode of human transportation
2. Funding: private bills passed parliament allowing entrepreneurs to raise monies through selling joint stock

• Massing investment: paid high returns

Impacts:

• Decreased the price of coal (think of the impact of half priced oil!!!)
• Increased the demand for iron and steel (massive industrial growth)
• Railroads were massive consumers of building materials and labor
• Leading employer
• Created a new concept of time, space and speed

1. Railroad time (standardization)
2. shrank the size of the country
3. Increased the rate (speed) trade could be conducted

• Increased personal travel

1. Safer
2. Travel for pleasure began, in 1851 6 million people travel to London to view the Crystal Palace exhibition

• Helped create a sense of nationalism as individuals worldview (travel and trade) expanded beyond their region

Entrepreneurs and Managers

• innovation was constant – everyone was trying to innovate

Industrialists:

• successful industrialists accomplished “economies of scale” (increased output resulting in decreasing unit cost)

1. Measured profit in fractions of cents

Entrepreneur – raised capital, understand production techniques and market their goods

Manager – organization, tried to maximize output from mechanized and human capital

• Attempted to increase output

1. Specialization
2. Had to educate the work force
3. Taught work ethic
4. Standards of quality
5. Thwart embezzlement

• Owen and others began to agitate for reform in response to increasingly harsh industrial conditions

Reforms:

The Factory Act of 1833: prohibited child labor under 9, provided two hours of daily education, created the 12 hour workday

1. The Ten Hours Act of 1847: set the ten hour work day
2. The Mines Act 1842: prohibited women and children from working underground

Edwin Chadwick, Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population in Britain (1842)

• Painted a horrible picture of daily life
• Key factor in shifting social reform to the role of government (welfare state)

The Public Health Act of 1848: established boards of health and medical examiners office

• Vaccination Act of 1853 and the Contagious Diseases Act of 1864: attempted to control epidemics in urban areas

Urbanization:

• Push / pull factors led to the rise of cities
• Rise of urban population (migration) and lower marriage ages + higher birth rates in families

Industrialization on the Continent:

• 1851 The Crystal Palace exhibition in London served as a model of industrial possibility for all of Europe

1. demonstrated the “British miracle” of industrialization

• Much of the continent was able to steal British innovation despite protective attempts by the government
• Accelerated the process of industrialization on the continent
• British competitive advantage forced continental govts. To become more involved in the development of industry

France:

• Industrialization keyed to domestic market (avoid competition with the British), but slowed by two factors:

1. Slow population growth: less population pressure meant that France could continue to embrace traditional agricultural techniques
2. French Revolution:
3. Napoleon’s Continental System failed and destroyed French foreign markets
4. Politics of the revolution strengthened peasant right’s to land, preventing enclosure and the agricultural revolution
5. Destruction of guild system in manufacturing
6. Economy remained largely regional

Stages of Progress:

• French challenges were developing effective transportation and raising capital
• Govt. stepped in to lead the development of railway system, ironworks and coalmines

1. Railways drove French industrialization

• French industrialize at a slower rate and focused more on quality goods, rather than mass produced goods (Britain)

Germany

• Political division stood in the way of industrialization (300 states prior to 1815, 30 states after 1815)

1. Germany was an agriculturally rich and diverse land, west – free farmers, east - serfdom
2. Linens and metal goods were traditional products, could not compete with British goods
3. Had to protect and develop domestic markets and resources

Zollverein: German customs union created to promote effective trade and industrial development (agreed upon taxes and shared profits while protecting domestic industry)

• Prussian led, froze rival Austria-Hungary out
• Helped Prussian industry move goods across northern Germany and promoted the integration of the Rhineland (industrial heart of Germany)
• Precursor to German political unification?
• Intro. Of RR dropped the costs of industrial goods (achieved economies of scale)
• Germans became known for high quality metal goods

Dissent:

• Friedrich Engels: went to England to learn about industrialization, worked in a Manchester cotton mill

1. Wrote: The Condition of the Working Class in England 1845
2. Condemned working and living conditions

The lands that Time Forgot:

• Rest of Europe developed “pockets” of industrialization, but failed to reach economies of scale and largely remained pre-industrial societies.
• Why?
• Regional problems:

1. poor resources – Naples / Poland
2. poor transportation – Spain / Austria-Hungary

• Common problems:

1. agricultural structure perpetuated impoverished peasantry (sharecropping / serfdom)

• prevented a surplus labor force from forming

1. Tariffs protected traditional economies, stifled innovation

Long Term Results:

• Became exporters of raw materials and consumers of finished goods
• Dual system: Areas where traditional economy and industrialization existed side by side

1. Prevented industrialization from reaching economies of scale and farmers from developing enough wealth to access industrial goods

Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

• Attempted to reconstruct Europe after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars
• Meeting was hosted and controlled by the Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens Von Metternich
• Castlereagh: England
• Tallyrand: France
• Fredrick William III: Prussia
• Alexander I: Russia

Goal: Accomplish reconstruction through the creation of a "balance of powers" among the great European states

Five Main Principles:

• Powers fighting Napoleon stick together, rather than compete against one another

1. Quadruple Alliance

• Napoleon had to be deposed and the Bourbon monarchy restored

1. Principle of Legitimacy

• Principle rights of monarchs was to be upheld in the face of the right to "self-determination", which would have supported revolution

• The great nations would no longer seek to cannibalize smaller states as a means to increasing their power, as had been the model in the 18th century
• It was the responsibility of the great powers of Europe to maintain and control existing boarders and boundaries of all nations by working together

 Results of the Congress of Vienna

• France: 1792 boarders Louis XVIII were restored
• Netherlands was created as a buffer against French power
• Poland remained weak and partitioned among their three powerful neighbors
• Alliance system was implemented to deal with future problems

 Problem: Congress of Vienna was trying to undo history. The Napoleonic Wars spread the ideals of revolution and nationalism, which once unleashed could not be undone.

New Ideologies

• Conservatism: People who supported traditional monarchical rule

1. Often times sought to limit opposition by limiting free speech and self expression

• Relied on the use of autocratic power
• Believed that society needed government to maintain order
• Metternich is a classic example

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   Liberalism: Grew out of the belief of the freedom of the individual and the corruptibility of power

1. Based on Enlightenment rationalism, liberals sought the right to vote, civil liberties, legal equality, constitutional government, parliamentary sovereignty and a free market economy.
2. Believed that less government was better government, the less interference the better

 Jeremy Bentham

• followed the liberal belief of utilitarianism (greatest happiness for the greatest number of people)

1. Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
2. Rational of Punishments and Rewards

• Argued that social harmony was the only objective more important than personal liberty

 James Mills (son of John Stewart Mills) rejected Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarian beliefs

• Placed a greater emphasis on human emotion and accused Bentham of “mass tyranny”

1. On Liberty (1859)
2. Priniciples of Political Economy (1848), applied economic doctrines to social problems
3. Later in life, began to question sacred status of private property

 David Ricardo, wrote Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817)

• Argued that govt. should not intervene in trade
• “iron law of wages”: wages will inevitably fall to subsistence levels
• Reaction to Ricardo was to call for limited govt. intervention to the “iron law of wages”

3. Romanticism: Intellectual movement of the late 18^th and first half 19^th centuries, both conservatives and liberals alike embraced and rejected Romanticism

• Romantics shared a common view of the world, who rejected the confinement of classical forms and refused to accept the supremacy of reason over emotions

1. Mediums: poetry, painting, literature, music, architecture, literature

• Romantics valued nature (19^th century English gardens v. Versailles gardens)
• Romantics valued intuition over scientific learning
• Embraced Immanuel Kant, all knowledge is subjective (based on our own experience)
• Germaine de Stael: founder of French romanticism
• Victor Hugo: French romantic poet, wrote Notre-Dame de Paris and Les Miserables – provided a view of social change in the FR
• Frederic Chopin and Franz Liszt (musicians)
• J.M.W. Turner painter English landscapes
• Eugene Delacroix painter – iconoclastic French scenes, strong political messages (Liberty Leading the People, 1831)

Romanticism’s validation of the individual and the individual’s experience, justification of subjective knowledge challenged traditional authority

• Romantic’s involvement in politics varied, but the movement led to a new understanding life

 4. Nationalism: a movement which sought to create a collective identity and political allegiance of a people based upon a common cultural history / understanding.

• Focused on the people rather than the monarch as a nation, seen as a threat by the great powers (Congress of Vienna)
• Spread by the French Revolution

History of Nationalism:

• Began b/w 1815-1850 as a movement to unit the people against the tyrannical rule of monarchs
• Often emphasized folk history of various peoples to create a sense of unity

ex. The Fairy Tales (1812-1814) by two German brothers, Jacob Ludwig Grimm and Wilhelm Carl Grimm

• Nationalists reinterpreted history to create support
• Romanticism played into the nationalistic understanding of the past
• At times Nationalism and Liberalism worked together
• Despite this, remember these are two separate and individual ideologies
• ex. Giuseppe Mazzini: Italian Liberal / Nationist

ex. Georg Friedrich List: German Nationalist who rebuffed Liberalism through his work in economics

• Nationalism was embraced by people looking to remove foreign rule

5. Socialism: broadly means the collective ownership, operation and wealth of society

• Believed that people should create a better social organization for society
• Hoped that the industrial age would eliminate the suffering of the poor

Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825): “Father of French Socialism”

• Industrialization was the highest level of development in history
• Create a just world in which one’s productivity would equal wealth and prestige

 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865); What is Property? 1840

• In the industrial world, “property was theft” as industrialist amassed a disproportionate amount of wealth
• Wanted limited possession
• Ideal: Small self-ruling communities of producers w/ material comforts but not great wealth

 Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

• People should live communally in “Phalanxes” which would provide all of their needs
• Allowed for the continuance rich and poor classes

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

• The Communist Manifesto (1848)
• Marx believed that all societies evolved over the course of history.
• Basis of Marxist thought rests with his analysis of history: Dialectic Materialism.

1. Marx analysis of history is based solely on the economic relations of rich / poor classes.

• Marx developed a new philosophy for the organization of society / economy:

1. Communism (people cooperatively own / operate means of production)

Conclusions: 

• Historical change was based upon class struggle.
• Future changes will also be based upon class struggle.
• Capitalism (like all previous systems) will fail.

 All of history is based upon class struggle:

According to Marx, why would Capitalism fail?

• Ever increasing competition would result in greater levels of production and unemployment (due to labor saving mechanization)
• Greater production coupled with higher unemployment = depression
• Closer proximity of Proletariat leads to their ability to effectively revolt against ruling classes.

 Was Marx correct?

 Protest and Revolution

• The IR, the legacy of the FR, rapid urbanization and the spread of new ideologies challenged the restoration of traditional monarchies
• Pattern of instability developed:

Protest → govt. repression → heightened sense of political awareness → protest

• As urbanization increased so to did the social discontent
• Proletariat represented a dangerous and volatile component in Euro. Society

Early Cities:

•  Neighborhoods developed around regional / ethnic migration and identities
• Neighborhoods developed support networks to provide safety
• Quickly overwhelmed by mass migration
• Problems:
• Extreme poverty
• Prostitution: widespread, health problems
• Crime: rampant theft, mugging, pick-pocketing, extortion, ect.
• Neighborhood support systems could not deal with mounting problems
• Middle Class viewed these problems as a disease (control issue)
• Creation of police
• Ability to work became associated with morality
• Those unable to work had no one to look to (industrialist did not behave like traditional local lords)
• People began to look to the govt.

 “Revolution in Government” (1820-1840)

• Govt. began taking responsibility for managing the industrial society
• the beginning of the “Welfare State”

Two solutions to the role of government:

• Inaction: do nothing

1. Malthus argued that social problems were “self correcting” and govt. intervention would only increase the severity of the problem

ex. Potato Famine

• Government should intervene

1. Poverty was the result of society
2. Society should correct the problem

•  “Social Question”: how should govt. treat poverty, ultimately what role should the govt. play
• Parliamentary intervention in laws dealt with the most violent problems of society

ex. Factory Act of 1833

Revolutions of 1830

• Throughout the 1820’s small protests and revolts broke out in response to poor social conditions
• Met with govt. repression and violence

ex. “Peterloo” Massacre in England 1819

• 1829 poor harvests and a bad winter put the people of Europe into a “bad frame of mind”

1830

French Revolution of 1830

• Charles X (1824-1830) became an increasingly unpopular monarch (absolutist, who worked to restore the role of the church)
• Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, got an even more liberal group elected
• Issued the Four Ordinances:

1. Censored the press, revised electoral law, dissolved newly elected CD, called for new elections

• 75% inflation rate caused economic hardship
• July Revolts unseated the Bourbon Monarchy
• “July Monarchy”: Louis-Philippe became the new monarch
• Accepted a Constitutional Monarchy

 England:

• Protests only, fell apart in face of govt. authority

 Germany:

• Workers protested by breaking machinery, no revolution

 Switzerland:

• Developed democratic selection of govt. officials in most cantons

 Greece:

• Philhellenic Movement sought to free Greece from Turkish control

1. Popular throughout the major European powers, in line with the Congress of Vienna